Originally organized as Caterpillar Tractor Co. in 1925 in the State of California, our company was reorganized as Caterpillar Inc. in 1986 in the State of Delaware.  As used herein, the term “Caterpillar,” “we,” “us,” “our” or “the company” refers to Caterpillar Inc. and its subsidiaries unless designated or identified otherwise.

With 20212023 sales and revenues of $50.971$67.060 billion, Caterpillar is the world’s leading manufacturer of construction and mining equipment, off-highway diesel and natural gas engines, industrial gas turbines and diesel-electric locomotives.  The company principally operates through its three primary segments - Construction Industries, Resource Industries and Energy & Transportation - and also provides financing and related services through its Financial Products segment. Caterpillar is also a leading U.S. exporter.  Through a global network of independent dealers and direct sales of certain products, Caterpillar builds long-term relationships with customers around the world.

Currently, we have five operating segments, of which four are reportable segments and are described below. 

 

Other information about our operations in 2021,2023, including certain risks associated with our operations, is included in Part II, Item 7 “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

The nature of customer demand for construction machinery varies around the world.  Customers in developing economies often prioritize purchase price in making their investment decisions, while customers in developed economies generally weigh productivity and other performance criteria that contribute to lower owning and operating costs over the lifetime of the machine.  To meet customer expectations in developing economies, Caterpillar developed differentiated product offerings that target customers in those markets,regions, including our SEM brand machines.  We believe that these customer-driven product innovations enable us to compete more effectively in developing economies. The majority of Construction Industries' research and development spending in 20212023 focused on the next generation of construction machines.

 

The business of our Financial Products Segment is primarily conducted by Cat Financial, Insurance Services and their respective subsidiaries and affiliates.  Cat Financial is a wholly owned finance subsidiary of Caterpillar Inc. and it provides retail and wholesale financing alternatives to customers and dealers around the world for Caterpillar products and services, as well as financing for vehicles and power generation facilities and marine vessels that, in most cases, incorporate Caterpillar products. Retail financing is primarily comprised of installment sale contracts and other equipment-related loans, working capital loans, finance leases and operating leases. Wholesale financing to Caterpillar dealers consists primarily of inventory and rental fleet financing. In addition, Cat Financial purchases short-term wholesale trade receivables from Caterpillar. The various financing plans offered by Cat Financial are designed to support sales of Caterpillar products and services and generate financing income for Cat Financial.  A significant portion of our activity is conducted in North America and we have additional offices and subsidiaries in Latin America, Asia/Pacific, Europe Africa and the Middle East.Africa.  

For over 40 years, Cat Financial has been providing financing for Caterpillar products, contributing to our knowledge of asset values, industry trends, financing structures and customer needs.

In certain instances, Cat Financial’s operations are subject to supervision and regulation by state, federal and various foreign governmental authorities, and may be subject to various laws and judicial and administrative decisions imposing various requirements and restrictions which, among other things, (i) regulate credit granting activities and the administration of loans, (ii) establish maximum interest rates, finance charges and other charges, (iii) require disclosures to customers, (iv) govern secured transactions, (v) set collection, foreclosure, repossession and other trade practices and (vi) regulate the use and reporting of information related to a borrower’s credit experience.  Cat Financial’s ability to comply with these and other governmental and legal requirements and restrictions affects its operations.

Cat Financial’s retail loans (totaling 48 percent*) include:

     

Cat Financial's retail leases (totaling 36 percent*) include:

 

 

Cat Financial’s wholesale loans and leases (1 percent*) include inventory/rental programs, which provide assistance to dealers by financing their new Caterpillar inventory and rental fleets.

Cat Financial operates in a highly competitive environment, with financing for users of Caterpillar equipment and services available through a variety of sources, principally commercial banks and finance and leasing companies.  Our competitors include Wells Fargo Equipment Finance Inc., Banc of America Leasing & Capital LLC, BNP Paribas Leasing Solutions Limited, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Limited, Société Générale S.A. and various other banks and finance companies.  In addition, many of the manufacturers that compete with Caterpillar also own financial subsidiaries, such as John Deere Capital Corporation, Komatsu Financial L.P., Volvo Financial Services and Kubota Credit Corporation, which utilize many below-market interest rate programs (funded by the manufacturer) to support machine sales.  We andCat Financial works with the broader Caterpillar work togetherorganization to provide a broad array of financial merchandising programs to compete around the world.

Cat Financial’sThe financial results of Cat Financial are largely dependent upon the ability of Caterpillar dealers to sell equipment and customers’ willingness to enter into financing or leasing agreements.  Cat Financial is also affected by, among other things, the availability of funds from its financing sources, its cost of funds relative to its competitors and general economic conditions such as inflation and market interest rates.

 

Cat Financial has a match-funding policy that addresses interest rate risk by aligning the interest rate profile (fixed or floating rate and duration) of its debt portfolio with the interest rate profile of its receivables portfolio within predetermined ranges on an ongoing basis.  In connection with that policy, Cat Financial uses interest rate derivative instruments to modify the debt structure to match assets within the receivables portfolio. This matched funding reduces the volatility of margins between interest-bearing assets and interest-bearing liabilities, regardless of which direction interest rates move. For more information regarding match funding, please see Note 4 — “Derivative financial instruments and risk management” of Part II, Item 8 "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."  See also the risk factors associated with our financial products business included in Item 1 A. of this Form 10-K.

In managing foreign currency risk for Cat Financial’s operations, the objective is to minimize earnings volatility resulting from conversion and the remeasurement of net foreign currency balance sheet positions, and future transactions denominated in foreign currencies.  This policy allows the use of foreign currency forward, option and cross currency contracts to offset the risk of currency mismatch between the assets and liabilities, and exchange rate risk associated with future transactions denominated in foreign currencies.

Cat Financial provides financing only when certain criteria are met. Credit decisions are based on a variety of credit quality factors including prior payment experience, customer financial information, credit ratings, loan-to-value ratios and other internal metrics. Cat Financial typically maintains a security interest in retail-financed equipment and generally requires physical damage insurance coverage on financed equipment.  Cat Financial finances a significant portion of Caterpillar dealers’ sales and inventory of Caterpillar equipment throughout the world.  Cat Financial’s competitive position is improved by marketing programs offered in conjunction with Caterpillar and/or Caterpillar dealers.  Under these programs, Caterpillar, or the dealer, funds an amount at the outset of the transaction, which Cat Financial then recognizes as revenue over the term of the financing.  We believe that these marketing programs provide Cat Financial a significant competitive advantage in financing Caterpillar products.

 

Caterpillar Insurance Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of Caterpillar Insurance Holdings Inc., is a U.S. insurance company domiciled in Missouri and primarily regulated by the Missouri Department of Insurance.  Caterpillar Insurance Company is licensed to conduct property and casualty insurance business in 50 states, the District of Columbia and Guam, and as such, is also regulated in those jurisdictions.  The State of Missouri acts as the lead regulatory authority and monitors Caterpillar Insurance Company’s financial status to ensure that it is in compliance with minimum solvency requirements, as well as other financial ratios prescribed by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners.  Caterpillar Insurance Company is also licensed to conduct insurance business through a branch in Zurich, Switzerland and, as such, is regulated by the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority.

 

Caterpillar Life Insurance Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of Caterpillar, is a U.S. insurance company domiciled in Missouri and primarily regulated by the Missouri Department of Insurance.  Caterpillar Life Insurance Company is licensed to conduct life and accident and health insurance business in 26 states and the District of Columbia and, as such, is also regulated in those jurisdictions. The State of Missouri acts as the lead regulatory authority and it monitors the financial status to ensure that it is in compliance with minimum solvency requirements, as well as other financial ratios prescribed by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners.  Caterpillar Life Insurance Company provides reinsurance coverage to Caterpillar Insurance Company. Specifically, Caterpillar Life Insurance Company has entered into a reinsurance agreement with Caterpillar Insurance Company, assuming 100% of the risk of an Accident and Health Stop Loss Insurance Policy to cover a Caterpillar Voluntary Employees' Benefits Association (VEBA) Trust for medical losses sustained by a select group of Caterpillar retirees and dependents.

Caterpillar Insurance Co. Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of Caterpillar Insurance Holdings Inc., is a captive insurance company domiciled in Bermuda and regulated by the Bermuda Monetary Authority. Caterpillar Insurance Co. Ltd. holdsis registered as a Class 2 license (as defined by(General Business) and Class B (Long-Term) insurer with the Bermuda Monetary Authority. Under its Class 2 insurance license, Caterpillar Insurance Amendment Act of 1995), which primarilyCo. Ltd. insures its parent and affiliates. Caterpillar Insurance Co.Ltd.affiliates for general liability, property, auto liability and cargo. It also provides reinsurance to Caterpillar Insurance Company under a quota share reinsurance agreementsagreement for its contractual liability and contractors'contractors’ equipment programs in the United States. Finally,In addition, Caterpillar Insurance Co. Ltd. holds areinsures 100% of the international employee benefit plans of Caterpillar Inc. through retrocession agreements with other insurers. The employee benefits coverages include medical and accident coverages. which are reported under its Class B2 insurance license to provideand life and disability reinsurance covering Caterpillar Inc.'s International employee benefits program.coverages, which are reported under its Class B insurance license. The Bermuda Monetary Authority is responsible for monitoring Caterpillar Insurance Co. Ltd.'s compliance with solvency requirements and requires an Annual Financial Filing for this purpose.

 

 

Caterpillar’s insurance group provides protection and service for claims under the following programs:

 

Caterpillar products and services are sold worldwide into a variety of highly competitive markets.  In all markets, we compete on the basis of product performance, customer service, quality and price.  From time to time, the intensity of competition results in price discounting in a particular industry or region.  Such price discounting puts pressure on margins and can negatively impact operating profit. Outside the United States, certain competitors enjoy competitive advantages inherent to operating in their home countries or regions.

We source our raw materials and manufactured components from suppliers both domestically and internationally. These purchases include unformed materials and rough and finished parts.  Unformed materials include a variety of steel products, which are then cut or formed to shape and machined in our facilities. Rough parts include various sized steel and iron castings and forgings, which are machined to final specification levels inside our facilities. Finished parts are ready to assemble components, which are made either to Caterpillar specifications or to supplier developed specifications.  We machine and assemble some of the components used in our machines, engines and power generation units and to support our after-market dealer parts sales. We also purchase various goods and services used in production, logistics, offices and product development processes.  We maintain global strategic sourcing models to meet our global facilities’ production needs while building long-term supplier relationships and leveraging enterprise spend.  We expect our suppliers to maintain, at all times, industry-leading levels of quality and the ability to timely deliver raw materials and component products for our machine and engine products. However, in some cases, increases in demand or supply chain disruptions have led to parts and components constraints across some products. We use a variety of agreements with suppliers to protect our intellectual property and processes to monitor and mitigate risks of the supply base causing a business disruption.  The risks monitored include supplier financial viability, the ability to increase or decrease production levels, business continuity, quality and delivery.

 

We own a number of patents and trademarks, which have been obtained over a period of years and relate to the products we manufacture and the services we provide. These patents and trademarks are generally considered beneficial to our business. We do not regard our business as being dependent upon any single patent or group of patents.

The dollar amount of backlog believed to be firm was approximately $23.1$27.5 billion at December 31, 20212023 and $14.2$30.4 billion at December 31, 2020.2022. Compared with year-end 2020,2022, the order backlog increaseddecreased across the three primary segments, with the largest increase in Energy & Transportation.segments. Of the total backlog at December 31, 2021,2023, approximately $4.3$5.8 billion was not expected to be filled in 2022.2024. 

We distribute our machines principally through a worldwide organization of dealers (dealer network), 4443 located in the United States and 116113 located outside the United States, serving 193191 countries.  We sell reciprocating engines principally through the dealer network and to other manufacturers for use in products. We also sell some of the reciprocating engines manufactured by our subsidiary Perkins Engines Company Limited through its worldwide network of 9088 distributors covering 171185 countries. We sell the FG Wilson branded electric power generation systems through its worldwide network of 110 distributors covering 109 countries.  We also sell some of the large, medium speed reciprocating engines under the MaK brand through a worldwide network of 20 distributors covering 130 countries. 

 

Our dealers do not deal exclusively with our products; however, in most cases sales and servicing of our products are the dealers’ principal business.  We sell some products, primarily turbines and locomotives, directly to end customers through sales forces employed by the company.  At times, these employees are assisted by independent sales representatives.

While the large majority of our worldwide dealers are independently owned and operated, we own and operate a dealership in Japan that covers approximately 80% of the Japanese market: Nippon Caterpillar Division. We are currently operating this Japanese dealer directly and we report its results in the All Other operating segment. There are also three independent dealers in the Southern Region of Japan.

For Caterpillar brandedCaterpillar-branded products, the company’s relationship with each of its independent dealers is memorialized in standard sales and service agreements.  Pursuant to these agreements, the company grants the dealer the right to purchase and sell its products and to service the products in a specified geographic service territory.  The company establishes prices to dealers after receiving input from dealers on transactional pricing in the marketplace.  The company also agrees to defend its intellectual property and to provide warranty and technical support to the dealer.  The agreement further grants the dealer a non-exclusive license to use the company’s trademarks, service marks and brand names.  In some instances, a separate trademark agreement exists between the company and a dealer.

 

In exchange for these rights, the agreement obligates the dealer to develop and promote the sale of the company’s products to current and prospective customers in the dealer’s service territory.  Each dealer agrees to employ adequate sales and support personnel to market, sell and promote the company’s products, demonstrate and exhibit the products, perform the company’s product improvement programs, inform the company concerning any features that might affect the safe operation of any of the company’s products and maintain detailed books and records of the dealer’s financial condition, sales and inventories and make these books and records available at the company’s reasonable request.

 

These sales and service agreements are terminable at will by either party primarily upon 90 days written notice.

Caterpillar’s global workforce is united by Our Values In Action, Caterpillar’s Code of Conduct. Integrity, Excellence, Teamwork, Commitment and Sustainability provide the foundation for our values-based culture. Our diversity and inclusion principles are embedded in our values. Our values unite us, and reflect our diverse cultures, languages, geographies, and businesses, as one Caterpillar team.

The health and safety of our employees is an important focus at Caterpillar, and we strive to continually reduce our recordable injuries. As part of this focus on health and safety, Caterpillar has established a peer-to-peer safety mentorship and education program for manufacturing new hires to accelerate acclimation toinjuries utilizing programs that amplify our safety culture, in many global locations.globally. In 2021,2023, the Company achieved a recordable injury frequency rate of 0.41,0.40, compared to the 20202022 recordable injury frequency rate of 0.42.

In addition to our focus on values and safety, we strive to continually attract, develop, engage, and retain a high-performing diverse global team that executes our enterprise strategy of long-term profitable growth.

We are committed to employee development and helping individuals reach their full potential, by making on-going investments in our team. Our global internships, engineering co-ops, and career programs for engineering, marketing, and manufacturing provide development opportunities for early career employees. We also have a continual focus on strengthening technical, professional and leadership capabilities at every level.level using contemporary learning strategies to foster high performance. Strategic talent reviews and succession planning occur at a minimum, annually, across our businesses.

Our ERGs provide many contributions, such as mentoring programs that connect diverse employees with senior leaders who can support their career goals, partnerships with recruiters and diverse early career and professional organizations that can assist in strengthening the diverse talent pipeline and programs that educate and inform on the richness of the global cultures that we share.

Management aligns employment levels with the needs of the business. We believe we have the appropriate human capital resources to successfully operate and deliver our enterprise strategy. As of December 31, 2021,2023, we employed about 107,700113,200 full-time persons of whom approximately 63,40062,400 were located outside the United States. In the United States, we employed approximately 44,30050,800 full-time persons, most of whom are at-will employees and, therefore, not subject to any type of employment contract or agreement.  At select business units, we have hired certain highly specialized employees under employment contracts that specify a term of employment, pay and other benefits.

The company is regulated by federal, state and international environmental laws governing our use, transport and disposal of substances and control of emissions. In addition to governing our manufacturing and other operations, these laws often impact the development of our products, including, but not limited to, required compliance with air emissions standards applicable to internal combustion engines. We have made, and will continue to make, significant research and development and capital expenditures to comply with these emissions standards.

 

We are engaged in remedial activities at a number of locations, often with other companies, pursuant to federal and state laws.  When it is probable we will pay remedial costs at a site, and those costs can be reasonably estimated, the investigation, remediation, and operating and maintenance costs of the remedial action are accrued against our earnings.  Costs are accrued

based on consideration of currently available data and information with respect to each individual site, including available technologies, current applicable laws and regulations, and prior remediation experience. Where no amount within a range of estimates is more likely, we accrue the minimum. Where multiple potentially responsible parties are involved, we consider our proportionate share of the probable costs. In formulating the estimate of probable costs, we do not consider amounts expected to be recovered from insurance companies or others.  We reassess these accrued amounts on a quarterly basis. The amount recorded for environmental remediation is not material and is included in the line item "Accrued expenses" in Statement 3 — "Consolidated Financial Position at December 31" of Part II, Item 8 "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." There is no more than a remote chance that a material amount for remedial activities at any individual site, or at all the sites in the aggregate, will be required.

The company files electronically with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) required reports on Form 8-K, Form 10-Q, Form 10-K and Form 11-K; proxy materials; ownership reports for insiders as required by Section 16 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (Exchange Act); registration statements on Forms S-3 and S-8, as necessary; and other forms or reports as required.  The SEC maintains a website (www.sec.gov) that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC. The company maintains a website (www.Caterpillar.com) and copies of our annual report on Form 10-K, quarterly reports on Form 10-Q, current reports on Form 8-K and any amendments to these reports filed or furnished with the SEC are available free of charge through our website (www.Caterpillar.com/secfilings) as soon as reasonably practicable after filing with the SEC.  Copies of our board committee charters, our board’s Guidelines on Corporate Governance Issues, Worldwide Code of Conduct and other corporate governance information are available on our website (www.Caterpillar.com/governance). and are also available free of charge.  The information contained on the company’s website is not included in, or incorporated by reference into, this annual report on Form 10-K.

 

 

The statements in this section describe the most significant risks to our business and should be considered carefully in conjunction with Part II, Item 7 “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and the “Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements” of Part II, Item 8 “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data” to this Form 10-K.  In addition, the statements in this section and other sections of this Form 10-K, including in Part II, Item 7 “Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” include “forward-looking statements” as that term is defined in the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 and involve uncertainties that could significantly impact results.  Forward-looking statements give current expectations or forecasts of future events about the company or our outlook.  You can identify forward-looking statements by the fact they do not relate to historical or current facts and by the use of words such as “believe,” “expect,” “estimate,” “anticipate,” “will be,” “should,” “plan,” “forecast,” “target,” “guide,” “project,” “intend,” “could” and similar words or expressions.

 

Forward-looking statements are based on assumptions and on known risks and uncertainties. Although we believe we have been prudent in our assumptions, any or all of our forward-looking statements may prove to be inaccurate, and we can make no guarantees about our future performance.  Should known or unknown risks or uncertainties materialize or underlying assumptions prove inaccurate, actual results could materially differ from past results and/or those anticipated, estimated or projected.

We undertake no obligation to publicly update forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise. You should, however, consult any subsequent disclosures we make in our filings with the SEC on Form 10-Q or Form 8-K.

The following is a cautionary discussion of risks, uncertainties and assumptions that we believe are material to our business. In addition to the factors discussed elsewhere in this report, the following are some of the important factors that, individually or in the aggregate, we believe could make our actual results differ materially from those described in any forward-looking statements. It is impossible to predict or identify all such factors and, as a result, you should not consider the following factors to be a complete discussion of risks, uncertainties and assumptions.

 

Our results of operations are materially affected by economic conditions globally and regionally and in the particular industries we serve.  The demand for our products and services tends to be cyclical and can be significantly reduced in periods of economic weakness characterized by lower levels of government and business investment, lower levels of business confidence, lower corporate earnings, high real interest rates, lower credit activity or tighter credit conditions, perceived or actual industry overcapacity, higher unemployment and lower consumer spending. A prolonged period of economic weakness may also result in increased expenses due to higher allowances for doubtful accounts and potential goodwill and asset impairment charges.  Economic conditions vary across regions and countries, and demand for our products and services generally increases in those regions and countries experiencing economic growth and investment.  Slower economic growth or a change in the global mix of regions and countries experiencing economic growth and investment could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

 

The energy, transportation, and mining industries are major userssignificant adopters of our products, including the mineral extraction, oil and natural gas industries.  Customers inCaterpillar products. In these industries frequentlycustomers are likely to base their purchase decisions to purchase our products and services on theupon expected future performance of these industries, which in turn are dependent in part on commodity prices. Prices of commodities in these industries are frequently volatiledynamics, including price. Commodity price volatility may be abrupt and can change abruptly and unpredictablyunpredictable in response to generalglobal economic conditions, and trends, government actions, regulatory actions, commodity inventories, productionchanges, supply/demand dynamics, innovation, and consumption levels, technological innovations, commodity substitutions market expectations and any disruptions in production or distribution or changes in consumption.among others. Economic conditions affecting the industries we serve may reduce capital expenditures in response to a variety of the future alsoaforementioned conditions. Reduction in these capital expenditures may lead to reduced capital expenditures by our customers. Reduced capital expenditures by our customers are likely to lead to a decrease in thedecreased demand for ourCaterpillar products and services and may also result in a decrease in demand foras well as aftermarket parts as customers are likelymay choose to extend preventative maintenance schedules and delay major overhauls when possible.

 

The rates of infrastructure spending, commercial construction and housing starts also play a significant role in our results.  Our products are an integral component of these activities, and as these activities decrease, demand for our products and services may be significantly impacted, which could negatively impact our results.  

 

Most countries where our products and services are sold have established central banks to regulate monetary systems and influence economic activities, generally by adjusting interest rates. Interest rate changes affect overall economic growth, which affects demand for residential and nonresidential structures, as well as energy and mined products, which in turn affects sales of our products and services that support these activities.  Interest rate changes may also affect our customers’ ability to finance machine purchases, can change the optimal time to keep machines in a fleet and can impact the ability of our suppliers to finance the production of parts and components necessary to manufacture and support our products. Increases in interest rates could negatively impact sales and create supply chain inefficiencies.

 

Central banks and other policy arms of many countries may take actions to vary the amount of liquidity and credit available in an economy. The impact from a change in liquidity and credit policies could negatively affect the customers and markets we serve or our suppliers, create supply chain inefficiencies and could adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Changes in monetary and fiscal policies, along with other factors, may cause currency exchange rates to fluctuate. Actions that lead the currency exchange rate of a country where we manufacture products to increase relative to other currencies could reduce the competitiveness of products made in that country, which could adversely affect our competitive position, results of operations and financial condition.

Government policies on taxes and spending also affect our business.  Throughout the world, government spending finances a significant portion of infrastructure development, such as highways, rail systems, airports, sewer and water systems, waterways and dams.  Tax regulations determine asset depreciation lives and impact the after-tax returns on business activity and investment, both of which influence investment decisions.  Unfavorable developments, such as decisions to reduce public spending or to increase taxes, could negatively impact our results.

The occurrence of one or more of these events may negatively impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Our business relies on continued global demand for our brands and products.  To achieve business goals, we must develop and sell products that appeal to our dealers, OEMs and end-user customers.  This is dependent on a number of factors, including our

We operate in a highly competitive environment.  We compete on the basis of a variety of factors, including product performance, customer service, quality and price.  There can be no assurance that our products will be able to compete successfully with other companies’ products.  Thus, our share of industry sales could be reduced due to aggressive pricing or product strategies pursued by competitors, unanticipated product or manufacturing difficulties, our failure to price our products competitively, our failure to produce our products at a competitive cost or an unexpected buildup in competitors’ new machine or dealer-owned rental fleets, which could lead to downward pressure on machine rental rates and/or used equipment prices.

 

Lack of customer acceptance of price increases we announce from time to time, changes in customer requirements for price discounts, changes in our customers’ behavior or a weak pricing environment could have an adverse impact on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

 

In addition, our results and ability to compete may be impacted negatively by changes in our geographic and product mix of sales.  

In addition, data we collect, store and process are subject to a variety of U.S. and international laws and regulations, such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation that became effective in May 2018 and the California Consumer Privacy Act, that became effective in January 2020, which may carry significant potential penalties for noncompliance.

We sell finished products primarily through an independent dealer network and directly to OEMs and are subject to risks relating to their inventory management decisions and operational and sourcing practices.  Both carry inventories of finished products as part of ongoing operations and adjust those inventories based on their assessments of future needs and market conditions, including levels of used equipment inventory and machine rental usage rates.  Such adjustments may impact our results positively or negatively.  If the inventory levels of our dealers and OEM customers are higher than they desire, they may postpone product purchases from us, which could cause our sales to be lower than the end-user demand for our products and negatively impact our results. Similarly, our results could be negatively impacted through the loss of time-sensitive sales if our dealers and OEM customers do not maintain inventory levels sufficient to meet customer demand.

In pursuing our business strategy, we routinely evaluate targets and enter into agreements regarding possible acquisitions, divestitures and joint ventures. We often compete with others for the same opportunities. To be successful, we conduct due diligence to identify valuation issues and potential loss contingencies, negotiate transaction terms, complete complex transactions and manage post-closing matters such as the integration of acquired businesses. Further, while we seek to mitigate risks and liabilities of such transactions through due diligence, among other things, there may be risks and liabilities that our due diligence efforts fail to discover, that are not accurately or completely disclosed to us or that we inadequately assess. We may incur unanticipated costs or expenses following a completed acquisition, including post-closing asset impairment charges, expenses associated with eliminating duplicate facilities, litigation, and other liabilities. Risks associated with our past or future acquisitions also include the following:

Many of these factors will be outside of our control and any one of them could result in increased costs, decreases in the amount of expected revenues and diversion of management’s time and attention. They may also delay the realization of the benefits we anticipate when we enter into a transaction.

 

In order to conserve cash for operations, we may undertake acquisitions financed in part through public offerings or private placements of debt or equity securities, or other arrangements.  Such acquisition financing could result in a decrease in our earnings and adversely affect other leverage measures.  If we issue equity securities or equity-linked securities, the issued securities may have a dilutive effect on the interests of the holders of our common shares.

 

Failure to implement our acquisition strategy, including successfully integrating acquired businesses, could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.  Furthermore, we make strategic divestitures from time to time. In the case of divestitures, we may agree to indemnify acquiring parties for certain liabilities arising from our former businesses. These divestitures may also result in continued financial involvement in the divested businesses following the transaction, including through guarantees or other financial arrangements.  Lower performance by those divested businesses could affect our future financial results.

 

Some of our employees are represented by labor unions in a number of countries under various collective bargaining agreements with varying durations and expiration dates.  There can be no assurance that any current or future issues with our employees will be resolved or that we will not encounter future strikes, work stoppages or other disputes with labor unions or our employees.  We may not be able to satisfactorily renegotiate collective bargaining agreements in the United States and other countries when they expire.  If we fail to renegotiate our existing collective bargaining agreements, we could encounter strikes or work stoppages or other disputes with labor unions.  In addition, existing collective bargaining agreements may not prevent a strike or work stoppage at our facilities in the future.  We may also be subject to general country strikes or work stoppages unrelated to our business or collective bargaining agreements. A work stoppage or other limitations on production at our facilities for any reason could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. In addition, many of our customers and suppliers have unionized work forces. Strikes or work stoppages experienced by our customers or suppliers could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

 

The occurrence of one or more unexpected events, including war, acts of terrorism or violence, civil unrest, fires, tornadoes, tsunamis, hurricanes, earthquakes, floods and other forms of severe weather in the United States or in other countries in which we operate or in which our suppliers are located could adversely affect our operations and financial performance.  Natural disasters, pandemic illness, including the current COVID-19 outbreak, equipment failures, power outages or other unexpected events could result in physical damage to and complete or partial closure of one or more of our manufacturing facilities or distribution centers, temporary or long-term disruption in the supply of component products from some local and international suppliers, and disruption and delay in the transport of our products to dealers, end-users and distribution centers.  Existing insurance coverage may not provide protection for all of the costs that may arise from such events.

 

Continuing to meet our cash requirements over the long-term requires substantial liquidity and access to varied sources of funds, including capital and credit markets. Global economic conditions may cause volatility and disruptions in the capital and credit markets. Market volatility, changes in counterparty credit risk, the impact of government intervention in financial markets and general economic conditions may also adversely impact our ability to access capital and credit markets to fund operating needs.  Global or regional economic downturns could cause financial markets to decrease the availability of liquidity, credit and credit capacity for certain issuers, including certain customers, dealers and suppliers. An inability to access capital and credit markets may have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and competitive position. Furthermore, changes in global economic conditions, including material cost increases and decreases in economic activity in key markets we serve, and the success of plans to manage cost increases, inventory and other important elements of our business may significantly impact our ability to generate funds from operations. 

 

In addition, demand for our products generally depends on customers’ ability to pay for our products, which, in turn, depends on their access to funds. Changes in global economic conditions may result in customers experiencing increased difficulty in generating funds from operations. Capital and credit market volatility and uncertainty may cause financial institutions to revise their lending standards, resulting in customers’ decreased access to capital. If capital and credit market volatility occurs, customers’ liquidity may decline which, in turn, would reduce their ability to purchase our products.

 

 

 

Cat Financial is significant to our operations and provides financing support for a significant share of our global sales. The inability of Cat Financial to access funds to support its financing activities to our customers could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

 

Market disruption and volatility may also lead to numerous risks in connection with these events, including but not limited to:

 

Inherent in the operation of Cat Financial is the credit risk associated with its customers. The creditworthiness of each customer and the rate of delinquencies, repossessions and net losses on customer obligations are directly impacted by several factors, including relevant industry and economic conditions, the availability of capital, the experience and expertise of the customer's management team, commodity prices, political events and the sustained value of the underlying collateral. Any increase in delinquencies, repossessions and net losses on customer obligations could have a material adverse effect on Cat Financial's and our earnings and cash flows. Cat Financial evaluates and adjusts its allowance for credit losses related to past due and non-performing receivables on a regular basis. However, adverse economic conditions or other factors that might cause deterioration of the financial health of its customers could change the timing and level of payments received and necessitate an increase in Cat Financial's estimated losses, which could also have a material adverse effect on Cat Financial's and our earnings and cash flows.

 

We conduct operations in many countries involving transactions denominated in a variety of currencies.  We are subject to currency-exchange rate risk to the extent that our costs are denominated in currencies other than those in which we earn revenues.  Fluctuations in currency exchange rates have had, and will continue to have, an impact on our results as expressed in U.S. dollars.  There can be no assurance that currency exchange rate fluctuations will not adversely affect our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows. While the use of currency hedging instruments may provide us with protection from adverse fluctuations in currency exchange rates, by utilizing these instruments we potentially forego the benefits that might result from favorable fluctuations in currency exchange rates. In addition, our outlooks do not assume fluctuations in currency exchange rates. Adverse fluctuations in currency exchange rates from the date of our outlooks could cause our actual results to differ materially from those anticipated in any outlooks and adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

 

 

 

We maintain a number of credit facilities to support general corporate purposes (facilities) and have issued debt securities to manage liquidity and fund operations (debt securities). The agreements relating to a number of the facilities and the debt securities contain certain restrictive covenants applicable to us and certain subsidiaries, including Cat Financial. These covenants include maintaining a minimum consolidated net worth (defined as the consolidated shareholder’s equity including

preferred stock but excluding the pension and other post-retirement benefits balance within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)), limitations on the incurrence of liens and certain restrictions on consolidation and merger. Cat Financial has also agreed under certain of these agreements not to exceed a certain leverage ratio (consolidated debt to consolidated net worth, calculated (1) on a monthly basis as the average of the leverage ratios determined on the last day of each of the six preceding calendar months and (2) at each December 31), to maintain a minimum interest coverage ratio (profit(calculated as (1) profit excluding income taxes, interest expense and net gain/gain (loss) from interest rate derivatives to (2) interest expense calculated at the end of each calendarfiscal quarter for the rollingprior four consecutive fiscal quarter period then most recently ended) and not to terminate, amend or modify its support agreement with us.

 

A breach of one or more of the covenants could result in adverse consequences that could negatively impact our business, results of operations and financial condition. These consequences may include the acceleration of amounts outstanding under certain of the facilities, triggering of an obligation to redeem certain debt securities, termination of existing unused commitments by our lenders, refusal by our lenders to extend further credit under one or more of the facilities or to enter into new facilities or the lowering or modification of our credit ratings or those of one or more of our subsidiaries.

 

 

 

Due to the international scope of our operations, we are subject to a complex system of import- and export-related laws and regulations. These include U.S. regulations issued by Customs and Border Protection, the Bureau of Industry and Security, the Office of Antiboycott Compliance, the Directorate of Defense Trade Controls and the Office of Foreign Assets Control, as well as the counterparts of these agencies in other countries.  Any alleged or actual violations may subject us to increased government scrutiny, investigation and civil and criminal penalties, and may limit our ability to import or export our products or to provide services outside the United States.  Furthermore, embargoes and sanctions imposed by the U.S. and other governments restricting or prohibiting sales to specific persons or countries or based on product classification may expose us to potential criminal and civil sanctions. We cannot predict the nature, scope or effect of future regulatory requirements to which our operations might be subject. We also cannot predict in certain locations the manner in which existing laws might be administered or interpreted.

 

In addition, the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and similar foreign anti-corruption laws generally prohibit companies and their intermediaries from making improper payments or providing anything of value to improperly influence foreign government officials for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business or obtaining an unfair advantage. Recent years have seen a substantial increase in the global enforcement of anti-corruption laws.  Our operations outside the United States, including in developing countries, expose us to the risk of such violations. Violations of anti-corruption laws or regulations by our employees, intermediaries acting on our behalf, or our joint venture partners may result in severe criminal or civil sanctions. Violations may also disrupt our business, and may result in an adverse effect on our reputation, business and results of operations or financial condition.

 

Government policies on international trade and investment such as import quotas, capital controls or tariffs, whether adopted by individual governments or addressed by regional trade blocs, can affect the demand for our products and services, impact the competitive position of our products or prevent us from being able to sell products in certain countries.  The implementation of more restrictive trade policies (such as more detailed inspections, higher tariffs or new barriers to entry) in countries where we sell large quantities of products and services could negatively impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.  For example, a government’s adoption of “buy national” policies or retaliation by another government against such policies could have a negative impact on our results of operations.

 

 

We are subject to a variety of legal proceedings and legal compliance risks in virtually every part of the world. We face risk of exposure to various types of claims, lawsuits and government investigations. We are involved in various claims and lawsuits related to product design, manufacture and performance liability (including claimed asbestos exposure), contracts, employment issues, environmental matters, intellectual property rights, tax, securities and other legal proceedings that arise in and outside of the ordinary course of our business.  The industries in which we operate are also periodically reviewed or investigated by regulators, which could lead to enforcement actions, fines and penalties or the assertion of private litigation claims.  It is not possible to predict with certainty the outcome of claims, investigations and lawsuits, and we could in the future incur judgments, fines or penalties or enter into settlements of lawsuits and claims that could have an adverse effect on our reputation, business, results of operations or financial condition in any particular period. 

The global and diverse nature of our operations means that legal and compliance risks will continue to exist and additional legal proceedings and other contingencies, the outcome of which cannot be predicted with certainty, may arise from time to time. In addition, subsequent developments in legal proceedings may affect our assessment and estimates of loss contingencies recorded as a reserve and require us to make payments in excess of our reserves. Such payments could have an adverse effect on our reputation, business and results of operations or financial condition.

 

 

Our facilities, operations and products are subject to increasingly stringent environmental laws and regulations globally, including laws and regulations governing emissions to noise, air, releases to soil and discharges to water and the generation, handling, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of non-hazardous and hazardous waste materials. Some environmental laws impose strict, retroactive and joint and several liability for the remediation of the release of hazardous substances, even for conduct that was lawful at the time it occurred, or for the conduct of, or conditions caused by, prior operators, predecessors or other third parties. Failure to comply with environmental laws could expose us to penalties or clean-up costs, civil or criminal liability and sanctions on certain of our activities, as well as damage to property or natural resources. The potential liabilities, sanctions, damages and remediation efforts related to any non-compliance with such laws and regulations could negatively impact our ability to conduct our operations and our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, there can be no assurances that we will not be adversely affected by costs, liabilities or claims with respect to existing or subsequently acquired operations or under present laws and regulations or those that may be adopted or imposed in the future.

Environmental laws and regulations may change from time to time, as may related interpretations and other guidance. Changes in environmental laws or regulations could result in higher expenses and payments. Uncertainty relating to environmental laws or regulations may also affect how we conduct our operations and structure our investments and could limit our ability to enforce our rights. Changes in environmental and climate change laws or regulations, including laws relating to greenhouse gas emissions, could lead to new or additional investment in product designs and could increase environmental compliance expenditures. Changes in climate change concerns, or in the regulation of such concerns, including greenhouse gas emissions, could subject us to additional costs and restrictions, including increased energy and raw materials costs. If environmental laws or regulations are either changed or adopted and impose significant operational restrictions and compliance requirements upon us or our products, they could negatively impact our reputation, business, capital expenditures, results of operations, financial condition and competitive position.

The Company’s amended and restated bylaws provide to the fullest extent permitted by law that unless the Company consents in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the sole and exclusive forum for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on behalf of the Company, (ii) any action asserting a claim of breach of fiduciary duty owed by any director, officer or other employee of the Company to the Company or the Company’s shareholders, (iii) any action asserting a claim against the Company or any director or officer or other employee of the Company arising pursuant to any provision of the Delaware General Corporation Law or the Company’s certificate of incorporation or bylaws (as either may be amended from time to time) or (iv) any action asserting a claim against the Company or any director or officer or other employee of the Company governed by the internal affairs doctrine.

The exclusive forum provisions in our bylaws could limit our shareholders’ ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with the Company or its directors, officers or other employees. Alternatively, if a court were to find the choice of forum provision contained in the Company’s amended and restated bylaws to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, the Company may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions. The exclusive forum provision in the Company’s amended and restated bylaws will not preclude or contract the scope of exclusive federal or concurrent jurisdiction for actions brought under the federal securities laws including the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the respective rules and regulations promulgated thereunder.

Caterpillar’s operations are highly integrated.  Although the majority of our plants are involved primarily in production relating to our Construction Industries, Resource Industries or Energy & Transportation segments, several plants are involved in manufacturing relating to more than one business segment.  In addition, several plants reported in our financial statements under the All Other segment are involved in the manufacturing of components that are used in the assembly of products for more than one business segment.  Caterpillar’s parts distribution centers are involved in the storage and distribution of parts for Construction Industries, Resource Industries and Energy & Transportation.  The research and development activities carried on at our Technical Centers in Aurora and Mossville, Illinois involve products for Construction Industries, Resource Industries and Energy & Transportation.

 

We believe the properties we own to be generally well maintained and adequate for present use.  Through planned capital expenditures, we expect these properties to remain adequate for future needs.  Properties we lease are covered by leases expiring over terms of generally one to ten years.  We do not anticipate any difficulty in retaining occupancy of any leased facilities, either by renewing leases prior to expiration or by replacing them with equivalent leased facilities.

Our corporate headquarters is in a leased office located in Deerfield, Illinois.Irving, Texas. Our Financial Products business is headquartered in offices in Nashville, Tennessee. Additional key offices are located inside and outside the United States.

We operate Technical Centers located in Aurora and Mossville, Illinois; Wuxi, China; and Chennai, India. Our demonstration centers are located in Tinaja Hills, Arizona; Edwards, Illinois; Chichibu, Japan and Malaga, Spain. We have various other technical and training centers, demonstration areas and proving grounds located both inside and outside the United States.

Distribution of our parts is conducted from parts distribution centers inside and outside the United States. We operate parts distribution centers in the following locations: Arvin, California; Denver, Colorado; Miami, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Morton, Illinois; St. Paul, Minnesota; Clayton, Ohio; York, Pennsylvania; Waco, Texas; Spokane, Washington; Melbourne, Australia; Queensland, Australia; Grimbergen, Belgium; Piracicaba, Brazil; Shanghai, China; Sagami, Japan; San Luis Potosi, Mexico; Singapore, Republic of Singapore; Moscow, Russia; Johannesburg, South Africa; and Dubai, United Arab Emirates. We also own or lease other facilities that support our distribution activities.

Manufacturing of products for our Construction Industries, Resource Industries and Energy & Transportation segments is conducted primarily at the locations listed below.  These facilities are believed to be suitable for their intended purposes, with adequate capacities for current and projected needs for existing products.

Our principal manufacturing facilities include those used by the following segments in the following locations:

Certain legal proceedings in which we are involved are discussed in Note 22 — "Environmental and legal matters" of Part II, Item 8 "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data" and should be considered an integral part of Part I, Item 3 "Legal Proceedings", which is hereby incorporated by reference. 

 

The graph below shows the cumulative shareholder return assuming an investment of $100 on December 31, 2016,2018, and reinvestment of dividends issued thereafter.

As of December 31, 2021,2023, we had 28 employee stock purchase plans (the “EIP Plans”) administered outside the United States for our non-U.S. employees, which had approximately 13,00014,000 active participants in the aggregate.  During the fourth quarter of 2021,2023, approximately 83,00078,000 shares of Caterpillar common stock were purchased by the EIP Plans pursuant to the terms of such plans.