☒ QUARTERLY REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

☐ TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒

As of ~~August 12,~~November 8, 2022, there were ~~28,625,046~~29,009,382 shares of the registrant’s common stock, par value $0.001 per share, outstanding.


	June 30,			December 31,			September 30,			December 31,
	2022			2021			2022			2021
	(unaudited)						(unaudited)
Assets
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	8,484		$	2,336		$	18,359		$	2,336
Available-for-sale investments		80,070			105,575			59,015			105,575
Other receivables		426			435			873			435
Prepaid expenses		4,375			5,223			6,386			5,223
Total current assets		93,355			113,569			84,633			113,569
Restricted cash		733			—			2,239			—
Property and equipment, net		558			543			1,275			543
Operating lease, right-of-use assets		827			1,267			6,971			1,267
Financing lease, right-of-use assets		368			—			768			—
Other assets		175			158			169			158
Total assets	$	96,016		$	115,537		$	96,055		$	115,537
Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable	$	1,674		$	1,031		$	3,129		$	1,031
Accrued expenses		6,610			4,002			7,269			4,002
Current portion of operating lease liability		906			980			657			980
Current portion of financing lease liability		70			—			158			—
Total current liabilities		9,260			6,013			11,213			6,013
Long-term operating lease liability, net of current portion		—			398			7,218			398
Long-term financing lease liability, net of current portion		298			—			618			—
Commitments and contingencies (Note 4)
Stockholders’ equity:
Preferred stock, $0.001 par value per share; 5,000,000 undesignated authorized shares as of June 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021; Class X Convertible Preferred Stock, issued and outstanding shares – 0 as of June 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021		—			—
Common stock, $0.001 par value per share; 85,000,000 and 42,500,000 authorized shares as of June 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021, respectively; issued and outstanding shares – 28,127,458 and 27,793,035 as of June 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021, respectively		28			28
Preferred stock, $0.001 par value per share; 5,000,000 undesignated authorized shares as of September 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021; no shares issued or outstanding as of September 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021								—			—
Common stock, $0.001 par value per share; 85,000,000 and 42,500,000 authorized shares as of September 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021, respectively; issued and outstanding shares – 29,009,382 and 27,793,035 as of September 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021, respectively								29			28
Additional paid-in capital		484,286			481,832			487,937			481,832
Accumulated other comprehensive loss		(810	)		(263	)		(669	)		(263	)
Accumulated deficit		(396,869	)		(372,296	)		(410,113	)		(372,296	)
Total aTyr Pharma, Inc. stockholders’ equity		86,635			109,301			77,184			109,301
Noncontrolling interest in Pangu BioPharma Limited		(177	)		(175	)		(178	)		(175	)
Total stockholders’ equity		86,458			109,126			77,006			109,126
Total liabilities and stockholders’ equity	$	96,016		$	115,537		$	96,055		$	115,537


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,						Three Months Ended September 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021
	(unaudited)												(unaudited)
Operating expenses:
Research and development	$	9,135		$	7,655		$	18,031		$	12,171		$	9,867		$	5,138		$	27,898		$	17,309
General and administrative		3,449			2,790			6,931			5,476			3,625			2,590			10,556			8,066
Total operating expenses		12,584			10,445			24,962			17,647			13,492			7,728			38,454			25,375
Loss from operations		(12,584	)		(10,445	)		(24,962	)		(17,647	)		(13,492	)		(7,728	)		(38,454	)		(25,375	)
Total other income (expense), net		163			53			387			100			247			59			634			159
Consolidated net loss		(12,421	)		(10,392	)		(24,575	)		(17,547	)		(13,245	)		(7,669	)		(37,820	)		(25,216	)
Net loss attributable to noncontrolling interest in Pangu BioPharma Limited		1			1			2			5			1			2			3			7
Net loss attributable to aTyr Pharma, Inc.	$	(12,420	)	$	(10,391	)	$	(24,573	)	$	(17,542	)	$	(13,244	)	$	(7,667	)	$	(37,817	)	$	(25,209	)
Net loss per share, basic and diluted	$	(0.44	)	$	(0.64	)	$	(0.88	)	$	(1.16	)	$	(0.46	)	$	(0.42	)	$	(1.34	)	$	(1.56	)
Shares used in computing net loss per share, basic and diluted		28,063,387			16,128,473			27,941,560			15,121,721			28,663,047			18,159,231			28,184,698			16,145,351


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,						Three Months Ended September 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021
	(unaudited)												(unaudited)
Consolidated net loss	$	(12,421	)	$	(10,392	)	$	(24,575	)	$	(17,547	)	$	(13,245	)	$	(7,669	)	$	(37,820	)	$	(25,216	)
Other comprehensive loss:
Change in unrealized loss on available-for-sale investments, net of tax		(51	)		(4	)		(547	)		(18	)
Change in unrealized gain (loss) on available-for-sale investments, net of tax														141			(8	)		(406	)		(26	)
Comprehensive loss		(12,472	)		(10,396	)	$	(25,122	)	$	(17,565	)		(13,104	)		(7,677	)	$	(38,226	)	$	(25,242	)
Comprehensive loss attributable to noncontrolling interest in Pangu BioPharma Limited		1			1			2			5			1			2			3			7
Comprehensive loss attributable to aTyr Pharma, Inc. common stockholders	$	(12,471	)	$	(10,395	)	$	(25,120	)	$	(17,560	)	$	(13,103	)	$	(7,675	)	$	(38,223	)	$	(25,235	)


	Three and Six Months Ended June 30, 2022 (unaudited)																			Three and Nine Months Ended September 30, 2022 (unaudited)
		Common Stock				Additional Paid-In		Other Comprehensive			Accumulated			Noncontrolling			Total Stockholders’				Common Stock				Additional Paid-In		Other Comprehensive			Accumulated			Noncontrolling			Total Stockholders’
		Shares		Amount		Capital		Gain/(Loss)			Deficit			Interest			Equity				Shares		Amount		Capital		Gain/(Loss)			Deficit			Interest			Equity
Balance as of December 31, 2021			27,793,035	$	28	$	481,832	$	(263	)	$	(372,296	)	$	(175	)	$	109,126				27,793,035	$	28	$	481,832	$	(263	)	$	(372,296	)	$	(175	)	$	109,126
Issuance of common stock upon release of restricted stock units			2,500		—		—		—			—			—			—				2,500		—		—		—			—			—			—
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options			259		—		1		—			—			—			1				259		—		1		—			—			—			1
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs			260,455		—		1,480		—			—			—			1,480				260,455		—		1,480		—			—			—			1,480
Stock-based compensation			—		—		417		—			—			—			417				—		—		417		—			—			—			417
Net unrealized loss on investments, net of tax			—		—		—		(496	)		—			—			(496	)			—		—		—		(496	)		—			—			(496	)
Net loss			—		—		—		—			(12,153	)		(1	)		(12,154	)			—		—		—		—			(12,153	)		(1	)		(12,154	)
Balance as of March 31, 2022			28,056,249	$	28	$	483,730	$	(759	)	$	(384,449	)	$	(176	)	$	98,374				28,056,249		28		483,730		(759	)		(384,449	)		(176	)		98,374
Issuance of common stock pursuant to employee stock purchase plan			1,958		—		5		—			—			—			5				1,958		—		5		—			—			—			5
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs			69,251		—		34		—			—			—			34				69,251		—		34		—			—			—			34
Stock-based compensation			—		—		517		—			—			—			517				—		—		517		—			—			—			517
Net unrealized loss on investments, net of tax			—		—		—		(51	)		—			—			(51	)			—		—		—		(51	)		—			—			(51	)
Net loss			—		—		—		—			(12,420	)		(1	)		(12,421	)			—		—		—		—			(12,420	)		(1	)		(12,421	)
Balance as of June 30, 2022			28,127,458	$	28	$	484,286	$	(810	)	$	(396,869	)	$	(177	)	$	86,458				28,127,458		28		484,286		(810	)		(396,869	)		(177	)		86,458
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs																						881,924		1		3,036		—			—			—			3,037
Stock-based compensation																						—		—		615		—			—			—			615
Net unrealized gain on investments, net of tax																						—		—		—		141			—			—			141
Net loss																						—		—		—		—			(13,244	)		(1	)		(13,245	)
Balance as of September 30, 2022																						29,009,382	$	29	$	487,937	$	(669	)	$	(410,113	)	$	(178	)	$	77,006


	Three and Six Months Ended June 30, 2021 (unaudited)																			Three and Nine Months Ended September 30, 2021 (unaudited)
		Common Stock				Additional Paid-In		Other Comprehensive			Accumulated			Noncontrolling			Total Stockholders’				Common Stock				Additional Paid-In		Other Comprehensive			Accumulated			Noncontrolling			Total Stockholders’
		Shares		Amount		Capital		Gain/(Loss)			Deficit			Interest			Equity				Shares		Amount		Capital		Gain/(Loss)			Deficit			Interest			Equity
Balance as of December 31, 2020			11,018,954	$	11	$	370,210	$	(43	)	$	(338,528	)	$	(166	)	$	31,484				11,018,954	$	11	$	370,210	$	(43	)	$	(338,528	)	$	(166	)	$	31,484
Issuance of common stock upon release of restricted stock units			4,177		—		—		—			—			—			—				4,177		—		—		—			—			—			—
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs			1,988,254		2		9,619		—			—			—			9,621				1,988,254		2		9,619		—			—			—			9,621
Issuance of common stock from committed purchase agreement, net of offering costs			3,000,000		3		15,233		—			—			—			15,236				3,000,000		3		15,233		—			—			—			15,236
Stock-based compensation			—		—		360		—			—			—			360				—		—		360		—			—			—			360
Net unrealized loss on investments, net of tax			—		—		—		(14	)		—			—			(14	)			—		—		—		(14	)		—			—			(14	)
Net loss			—		—		—		—			(7,151	)		(4	)		(7,155	)			—		—		—		—			(7,151	)		(4	)		(7,155	)
Balance as of March 31, 2021			16,011,385	$	16	$	395,422	$	(57	)	$	(345,679	)	$	(170	)	$	49,532				16,011,385		16		395,422		(57	)		(345,679	)		(170	)		49,532
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options			553		—		1		—			—			—			1				553		—		1		—			—			—			1
Issuance of common stock pursuant to employee stock purchase plan			1,602		—		5		—			—			—			5				1,602		—		5		—			—			—			5
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs			293,830		—		1,265		—			—			—			1,265				293,830		—		1,265		—			—			—			1,265
Stock-based compensation			—		—		398		—			—			—			398				—		—		398		—			—			—			398
Net unrealized loss on investments, net of tax			—		—		—		(4	)		—			—			(4	)			—		—		—		(4	)		—			—			(4	)
Net loss			—		—		—		—			(10,391	)		(1	)		(10,392	)			—		—		—		—			(10,391	)		(1	)		(10,392	)
Balance as of June 30, 2021			16,307,370	$	16	$	397,091	$	(61	)	$	(356,070	)	$	(171	)	$	40,805				16,307,370		16		397,091		(61	)		(356,070	)		(171	)		40,805
Issuance of common stock upon exercise of stock options																						9,620		—		58		—			—			—			58
Issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs																						692,437		1		3,183		—			—			—			3,184
Issuance of common stock from underwritten follow-on offering, net of offering costs																						10,781,250		11		80,616		—			—			—			80,627


	Six Months Ended June 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022			2021			2022			2021
	(unaudited)						(unaudited)
Cash flows from operating activities:
Consolidated net loss	$	(24,575	)	$	(17,547	)	$	(37,820	)	$	(25,216	)
Adjustments to reconcile net loss to net cash used in operating activities:
Depreciation and amortization		144			244			193			367
Stock-based compensation		934			758			1,549			1,200
Amortization of premium of available-for-sale investment securities		434			106			565			143
Amortization of right-of-use assets		440			411			805			617
Gain on disposal of property and equipment		(89	)		—			(95	)		—
Changes in operating assets and liabilities:
Other receivables		9			1,949			70			1,910
Prepaid expenses and other assets		831			(405	)		(1,174	)		(3,244	)
Accounts payable and accrued expenses		3,108			1,379			4,878			(133	)
Operating lease liability		(472	)		(414	)		(488	)		(633	)
Net cash used in operating activities		(19,236	)		(13,519	)		(31,517	)		(24,989	)
Cash flows from investing activities:
Purchases of property and equipment		(96	)		(113	)		(522	)		(174	)
Purchases of available-for-sale investment securities		(11,176	)		(40,024	)		(17,124	)		(68,811	)
Maturities of available-for-sale investment securities		35,700			12,768			62,713			26,767
Proceeds from sale of property and equipment		169			—			179			—
Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities		24,597			(27,369	)		45,246			(42,218	)
Cash flows from financing activities:
Proceeds from issuance of common stock through option exercises		1			1			1			59
Proceeds from issuance of common stock through employee stock purchase plan		5			5			5			5
Proceeds from issuance of common stock from at-the-market offerings, net of offering costs		1,514			10,886			4,551			14,070
Proceeds from issuance of common stock from committed purchase agreement, net of offering costs		—			15,236			—			15,236
Proceeds from issuance of common stock from underwritten follow-on offering, net of offering costs								—			80,627
Principal paid on finance lease liabilities								(24	)		—
Net cash provided by financing activities		1,520			26,128			4,533			109,997
Net change in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash		6,881			(14,760	)		18,262			42,790
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at beginning of period		2,336			16,952			2,336			16,952
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at the end of period	$	9,217		$	2,192		$	20,598		$	59,742

Cash and cash equivalents at the end of period	$	8,484		$	2,192		$	18,359		$	59,742
Restricted cash at the end of period		733			—			2,239			—
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash at the end of period	$	9,217		$	2,192		$	20,598		$	59,742

Supplemental schedule of noncash investing and financing activities:
Purchases of property and equipment in accounts payable	$	143		$	—		$	487		$	—
Right-of-use assets obtained in exchange for lease obligation	$	368		$	—		$	800		$	—

2. Fair Value Measurements

The carrying amounts of cash equivalents, prepaid and other assets, accounts payable and accrued liabilities are considered to be representative of their respective fair values because of the short-term nature of those instruments. Investment securities are recorded at fair value.

The accounting guidance defines fair value, establishes a consistent framework for measuring fair value and expands disclosure for each major asset and liability category measured at fair value on either a recurring or nonrecurring basis. Fair value is defined as an exit price, representing the amount that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants. As such, fair value is a market-based measurement that should be determined based on assumptions that market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability. As a basis for considering such assumptions, the accounting guidance establishes a three-tier fair value hierarchy, which prioritizes the inputs used in measuring fair value as follows:

Level 1: Observable inputs such as quoted prices in active markets.

Level 2: Inputs, other than the quoted prices in active markets that are observable either directly or indirectly.

Level 3: Unobservable inputs in which there is little or no market data, which require the reporting entity to develop its own assumptions.

Financial assets measured at fair value on a recurring basis consist of investment securities. Investment securities are recorded at fair value, defined as the exit price in the principal market in which we would transact, representing the amount that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants. Level 2 securities are valued using quoted market prices for similar instruments, non-binding market prices that are corroborated by observable market data, or discounted

cash flow techniques and include our investments in commercial paper, corporate debt securities and asset-backed securities. We have no financial liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis. None of our non-financial assets and liabilities are recorded at fair value on a non-recurring basis. No transfers between levels have occurred during the periods presented.

Assets measured at fair value on a recurring basis are as follows (in thousands):


			Fair Value Measurements Using								Fair Value Measurements Using
	Total		Quoted Prices in Active Markets for Identical Assets (Level 1)		Significant Other Observable Inputs (Level 2)		Significant Unobservable Inputs (Level 3)		Total		Quoted Prices in Active Markets for Identical Assets (Level 1)		Significant Other Observable Inputs (Level 2)		Significant Unobservable Inputs (Level 3)
As of June 30, 2022
As of September 30, 2022
Assets:
Current:
Cash equivalents	$	7,455	$	7,455	$	—	$	—	$	17,513	$	17,513	$	—	$	—
Available-for-sale investments:
Commercial paper		26,720		—		26,720		—		15,792		—		15,792		—
Corporate debt securities		44,550		—		44,550		—		34,434		—		34,434		—
Municipal bonds		8,800		—		8,800		—		8,789		—		8,789		—
Total available-for-sale investments		80,070		—		80,070		—		59,015		—		59,015		—
Total assets measured at fair value	$	87,525	$	7,455	$	80,070	$	—	$	76,528	$	17,513	$	59,015	$	—


			Fair Value Measurements Using
	Total		Quoted Prices in Active Markets for Identical Assets (Level 1)		Significant Other Observable Inputs (Level 2)		Significant Unobservable Inputs (Level 3)
As of December 31, 2021
Assets:
Current:
Cash equivalents	$	2,052	$	2,052	$	—	$	—
Available-for-sale investments:
Commercial paper		36,921		—		36,921		—
Corporate debt securities		55,713		—		55,713		—
Municipal bonds		12,941		—		12,941		—
Total available-for-sale investments		105,575		—		105,575		—
Total assets measured at fair value	$	107,627	$	2,052	$	105,575	$	—

As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, available-for-sale investments are detailed as follows (in thousands):

June 30, 2022

Contractual Maturity

Gross
Amortized
Cost

Gross
Unrealized
Gains

Gross
Unrealized
Losses

Market Value

Available-for-sale investments:

Commercial paper

Within 1 year

$
26,864

$
—

$
(144
)

$
26,720

Corporate debt securities

1 to 2 years

45,082

—

(532
)

44,550

Municipal bonds

1 to 2 years

8,883

—

(83
)

8,800

$
80,829

$
—

$
(759
)

$
80,070


		December 31, 2021										September 30, 2022
	Contractual Maturity	Gross Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Market Value		Contractual Maturity	Gross Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Market Value
Available-for-sale investments:
Commercial paper	Within 1 year	$	36,956	$	—	$	(35	)	$	36,921	Within 1 year	$	15,871	$	—	$	(79	)	$	15,792
Corporate debt securities	1 to 2 years		55,859		—		(146	)		55,713	1 to 2 years		34,921		—		(487	)		34,434
Municipal bonds	1 to 2 years		12,973		—		(32	)		12,941	Within 1 year		8,842		—		(53	)		8,789
		$	105,788	$	—	$	(213	)	$	105,575		$	59,634	$	—	$	(619	)	$	59,015

1112


		December 31, 2021
	Contractual Maturity	Gross Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Market Value
Available-for-sale investments:
Commercial paper	Within 1 year	$	36,956	$	—	$	(35	)	$	36,921
Corporate debt securities	1 to 2 years		55,859		—		(146	)		55,713
Municipal bonds	1 to 2 years		12,973		—		(32	)		12,941
		$	105,788	$	—	$	(213	)	$	105,575

At each reporting date, we perform an evaluation of impairment to determine if any unrealized losses are other-than-temporary. Factors considered in determining whether a loss is other-than-temporary include the length of time and extent to which fair value has been less than the cost basis, the financial condition of the issuer, and our intent and ability to hold the investment until recovery of its amortized cost basis. We intend, and have the ability, to hold our investments in unrealized loss positions, if any, until their amortized cost basis has been recovered.

As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022, all available-for-sale investments had a variety of effective maturity dates of less than two years. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022, all available-for-sale investments were in gross unrealized loss positions ~~and have been in such~~of which 7 of 26 available-for-sale investments with a market value of $13.4 million were at a loss ~~positions less~~position greater than 12 months.

5. Stockholders’ Equity

Underwritten Follow-On Public Offerings

In September 2021, we completed an underwritten follow-on public offering of 10,781,250 shares of our common stock, including the full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, at a price to the public of $8.00 per share. The total net proceeds from the offering were approximately $80.6 million after deducting underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses payable by us.

At the Market Offering Programs

In March 2021, we entered into a Capital on DemandTM Sales Agreement with JonesTrading Institutional Services LLC (JonesTrading) for an at-the-market offering program (the Prior ATM Offering Program), pursuant to which we were entitled to sell from time to time, at our option, up to an aggregate of $25.0 million of shares of our common stock through JonesTrading, as sales agent or principal. JonesTrading was entitled to a commission at a fixed rate of up to 3.0% of the gross proceeds. During 2021, we sold an aggregate of 986,267 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $4.75 per share for net proceeds of $4.4 million under the Prior ATM Offering Program. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we sold an aggregate of 260,455 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $6.07 per share for net proceeds of approximately $1.5 million under the Prior ATM Offering Program. In April 2022, we terminated the Prior ATM Offering Program.

In April 2022, we entered into an Open Market Sale AgreementSM with Jefferies LLC (Jefferies) implementing an “at-the-market” offering program (the ATM Offering Program), pursuant to which we may offer and sell, from time to time and at our option, up to an aggregate of $65.0 million of shares of our common stock through Jefferies, acting as sales agent. Jefferies is entitled to a fixed commission rate of up to 3.0% of the gross sales proceeds of shares sold under the ATM Offering Program. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we sold an aggregate of ~~69,251~~951,175 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $~~2.80~~3.55 per share for ~~gross~~net proceeds of approximately $~~0.2~~3.1 million under the ATM Offering Program.

Purchase Agreement

In September 2020, we entered into a common stock purchase agreement (the Purchase Agreement) with Aspire Capital Fund, LLC (Aspire Capital), which provides that, upon the terms and subject to the conditions and limitations set forth therein, Aspire Capital is committed to purchase up to an aggregate of $20.0 million of shares of our common stock at our request from time to time during the 30 month term of the Purchase Agreement. Concurrently with entering into the Purchase Agreement, we also entered into a registration rights agreement with Aspire Capital, in which we agreed to file one or more registration statements, as permissible and necessary to register under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, for the resale of the shares of our common stock that have been and may be issued to Aspire Capital under the Purchase Agreement. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2021, we sold an aggregate of 3,000,000 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $5.09 per share for net proceeds of $15.2 million under the Purchase Agreement. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, there were 0no issuances or sales under the Purchase Agreement.

Inducement Grants

In March 2022, we adopted and our board of directors approved our 2022 Inducement Plan (our Inducement Plan). Awards granted under our Inducement Plan are in accordance with Nasdaq Listing Rule 5635(c)(4). A total of 300,000 shares of our common stock were initially reserved for the issuance under our Inducement Plan.

The maximum term of options granted under our Inducement Plan is ten years. Each option vests over a period of four years, with 25% of the shares vesting on the one-year anniversary of the applicable vesting commencement date and the remaining 75% vesting in equal monthly installments over three years, subject to continuous employment.

~~In March~~During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, we granted nonstatutory stock options under our Inducement Plan to purchase an aggregate of ~~58,400~~192,400 shares of our common stock, ~~each~~ with ana weighted-average exercise price of $~~5.24~~4.04 per share as inducement awards to ~~10 new employees. In May 2022, we granted nonstatutory stock options under our Inducement Plan to purchase an aggregate of~~ ~~113,400~~ ~~shares of our common stock, each with an exercise price of $3.48~~ ~~per share as inducement awards to four~~ new employees.

Common Stock Reserved for Future Issuance

Common stock reserved for future issuance was as follows:


	~~June~~September 30, 2022
Common stock warrants		13,760
Common stock options and restricted stock units		~~3,048,636~~3,082,068
Shares available under the 2015 equity incentive plan		~~961,351~~948,519
Shares available under the 2022 inducement plan		~~128,200~~107,600
Shares available under the employee stock purchase plan		819,975
		4,971,922

The following table summarizes our stock option activity under all equity incentive plans for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022:


	Number of Outstanding Stock Options			Weighted- Average Exercise Price		Number of Outstanding Stock Options			Weighted- Average Exercise Price
Outstanding as of December 31, 2021		1,412,550		$	12.01		1,412,550		$	12.01
Granted		1,528,444		$	3.44		1,573,844		$	3.44
Exercises		(259	)	$	3.77		(259	)	$	3.77
Canceled/forfeited/expired		(13,537	)	$	18.17		(25,505	)	$	12.27
Outstanding as of June 30, 2022		2,927,198		$	7.51
Outstanding as of September 30, 2022							2,960,630		$	7.45

The assumptions used in the Black-Scholes option pricing model to determine the fair value of the employee stock option grants were as follows:


	Three Months Ended June 30,						Six Months Ended June 30,						Three Months Ended September 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021			2022			2021
Expected term (in years)	6.02 – 6.06			5.50 – 6.08			6.02 – 6.08			5.50 – 6.08			5.98 – 6.06			5.98 – 6.06			5.98 – 6.08			5.50 – 6.08
Risk-free interest rate	2.8%-3.0%			1.07% – 1.09%			1.7% – 3.0%			0.6% – 1.09%			2.7%-2.9%			0.8% – 1.1%			1.7% – 3.0%			0.6% – 1.1%
Expected volatility	84.7% – 84.9%			87.4% – 88.29%			84.7% – 86.5%			88.3% – 104.8%			84.5% – 84.6%			86.3% – 86.9%			84.5% – 86.5%			86.3% – 104.8%
Expected dividend yield		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%		0.0	%

The following table summarizes our restricted stock unit activity under all equity incentive plans for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022:


	Number of Outstanding Restricted Stock Units			Weighted-Average Grant Date Fair Value		Number of Outstanding Restricted Stock Units			Weighted-Average Grant Date Fair Value
Balance as of December 31, 2021		7,500		$	4.08		7,500		$	4.08
Granted		116,438		$	5.13		116,438		$	5.13
Released		(2,500	)	$	4.13		(2,500	)	$	4.13
Balance as of June 30, 2022		121,438		$	5.09
Balance as of September 30, 2022							121,438		$	5.09

Stock-based Compensation

The allocation of stock-based compensation for all options and restricted stock units and stock issued pursuant to our employee stock purchase plan is as follows (in thousands):


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,				Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022		2021		2022		2021		2022		2021		2022		2021
Research and development	$	131	$	64	$	238	$	128	$	150	$	70	$	388	$	198
General and administrative		386		334		696		630		465		372		1,161		1,002
Total stock-based compensation expense	$	517	$	398	$	934	$	758	$	615	$	442	$	1,549	$	1,200

Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes included in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q (Quarterly Report), our audited consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes thereto for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021 and the related Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, which are contained in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021, as filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), on March 15, 2022 (our 2021 Annual Report).

This Quarterly Report contains “forward-looking statements” within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, (the Securities Act), and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the Exchange Act). Such forward looking statements, which represent our intent, belief or current expectations, involve risks and uncertainties and other factors that could cause actual results and the timing of certain events to differ materially from future results expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terms such as “may,” “will,” “expect,” “anticipate,” “estimate,” “intend,” “plan,” “predict,” “potential,” “believe,” “should” or the negative or plural of these words and similar expressions. Factors that could cause or contribute to differences in results include, but are not limited to those set forth under “Risk Factors” under Part II, Item 1A, and elsewhere in this Quarterly Report. Except as required by law we undertake no obligation to update these forward-looking statements to reflect events or circumstances after the date of this Quarterly Report or to reflect actual outcomes.

We are a biotherapeutics company engaged in the discovery and development of first-in-class medicines from our proprietary tRNA synthetase platform. We have concentrated our research and development efforts on a newly discovered area of biology, the extracellular functionality and signaling pathways of tRNA synthetases. Built on more than a decade of foundational science on extracellular tRNA synthetase biology and its effect on immune responses, we have built a global intellectual property estate directed to a potential pipeline of protein compositions derived from 20 tRNA synthetase genes and their extracellular targets, such as neuropilin-2 (NRP2).

Our primary focus is efzofitimod, a clinical-stage product candidate which binds to the NRP2 extracellular target and is designed to downregulate immune engagement in fibrotic lung disease. We are developing efzofitimod as a potential disease-modifying therapy for patients with fibrotic lung diseases with high unmet medical need. This includes interstitial lung disease (ILD), a group of rare immune-mediated disorders that cause progressive fibrosis of the lung. In January 2022, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted efzofitimod an orphan drug designation for the treatment of sarcoidosis and in April 2022, for the treatment of systemic sclerosis (also known as scleroderma). In August 2022, the FDA granted efzofitimod fast track designation for the treatment of pulmonary ~~sarcoidosis.~~sarcoidosis, and in September 2022, the FDA granted efzofitimod a second fast track designation for the treatment of scleroderma associated ILD.

In December 2018, we designed a Phase 1b/2a multiple-ascending dose, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, a major form of ILD, to evaluate the safety, tolerability, immunogenicity and steroid-sparing effect of efzofitimod, and conduct other exploratory assessments of efficacy, such as lung function. In September 2021, we announced positive results and clinical proof-of-concept from the Phase 1b/2a clinical trial in 37 patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Efzofitimod was well-tolerated at all doses administered with no serious drug-related adverse events or signal of immunogenicity. Additionally, the study demonstrated consistent dose response for efzofitimod on key efficacy endpoints and improvements compared to placebo, including measures of steroid reduction, lung function, pulmonary sarcoidosis symptom measures and inflammatory biomarkers. Based on the results of this study, we met with the FDA in February ~~2022~~ and ~~presented~~have had continued correspondence to discuss these data and our plans for subsequent clinical development and path to registration for efzofitimod for the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis. ~~Based~~ In addition, based

on the results of the Phase 1b/2a clinical trial, we believe efzofitimod has further potential applications in the treatment of other ILD, such as chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis and connective tissue disease related ILD, including scleroderma-associated ILD.

~~In May 2022, we announced our intent to initiate, in~~During the third quarter of 2022, we initiated a global pivotal Phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of efzofitimod in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis (the EFZO-FIT™ study). The EFZO-FIT™ study is a 52-week study consisting of three parallel cohorts randomized equally to either 3.0 mg/kg or 5.0 mg/kg of efzofitimod or placebo dosed intravenously once a month for a total of 12 doses. The study is currently enrolling and intends to enroll 264 subjects

with pulmonary sarcoidosis at multiple centers in ~~North America,~~the United States, Europe and Japan. The trial design incorporates a forced steroid taper. The primary endpoint of the study is steroid reduction. Secondary endpoints include measures of lung function and sarcoidosis symptoms. ~~To date, since our announcement in May~~In September 2022, we have had multiple interactions with regulatory authorities in the United States, European Union and Japan along with the submission of study protocol and clinical trial applications to regulatory authorities, ethics committees and institutional review boards. In addition, site selection, qualification and initiations for several trial sites have occurred, as well as an investigator meeting for U.S. sites. We are on track to enrolldosed the first patient in this ~~study in the third quarter of 2022.~~study.

In January 2020, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement (Kyorin Agreement) with Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Kyorin) for the development and commercialization of efzofitimod for the treatment of ILD in Japan. Under the Kyorin Agreement, Kyorin received an exclusive right to develop and commercialize efzofitimod in Japan for all forms of ILD, and is obligated to fund all research, development, regulatory, marketing and commercialization activities in Japan. In September 2020, Kyorin began dosing patients in a Phase 1 clinical trial of efzofitimod (known as KRP-R120 in Japan) and completed the last subject visit in December 2020. The Phase 1 clinical trial, which was conducted and funded by Kyorin, was a placebo-controlled clinical trial to evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics (PK) and immunogenicity of efzofitimod in 32 healthy Japanese male volunteers. Efzofitimod was observed to be generally well-tolerated with no drug-related serious adverse events, and PK findings were consistent with previous studies of efzofitimod. We received an $8.0 million upfront payment in January 2020 and a $2.0 million milestone payment in January 2021 following completion of enrollment in the Phase 1 clinical trial. Kyorin ~~plans to join~~has joined the EFZO-FIT™ study, and all study activity in Japan will be funded by Kyorin. We are eligible to receive up to an additional $165.0 million in the aggregate upon achievement of certain development, regulatory and sales milestones, as well as tiered royalties ranging from the mid-single digits to mid-teens on net sales in Japan.

In parallel with our clinical development of efzofitimod, we have been advancing our discovery pipeline of tRNA synthetases and NRP2 antibodies.

In February 2021, we announced two new programs from our discovery pipeline of tRNA synthetases. These programs will investigate the functionality of selected fragments of Alanyl-tRNA synthetase (AARS) and Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (DARS) in immunology, fibrosis and cancer. We are also advancing our preclinical pipeline of tRNA synthetases and NRP2 targeting candidates through internal research efforts, industry and academic collaborations. In June 2022, we announced that the target receptor of the fragment AARS-1 was identified as fibroblast growth factor receptor 4, indicating that AARS-1 may have therapeutic potential in fibrosis, inflammation and cancer.

In October 2022, we entered into a research collaboration with Dualsystems Biotech AG (Dualsystems), a company specializing in custom proteomics, aimed at accelerating drug discovery and generating new therapeutics based on our extensive intellectual property portfolio. Under the collaboration, which is exclusive with respect to tRNA related molecules, Dualsystems will utilize their proprietary receptor screening technology and research expertise to attempt to identify and validate 10 new target receptors for tRNA synthetases by 2025.

We have also advanced our preclinical pipeline of NRP2 targeting antibody candidates through internal research efforts, industry and academic collaborations. ATYR2810 is our ~~lead~~product candidate in oncology from our NRP2 antibody program. ATYR2810 is a fully humanized monoclonal antibody that is designed to selectively and functionally block the interaction between NRP2 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). NRP2 is a pleiotropic cell surface receptor that is highly expressed on certain tumors and increased NRP2 expression is associated with worse outcomes in many cancers, such as overall survival, metastasis and resistance to targeted therapies. VEGF is a validated mediator of tumor growth and plays a role in immune evasion in the tumor microenvironment. The role of NRP2 and VEGF signaling in the tumor microenvironment and its importance in the progression of certain aggressive cancers is becoming increasingly validated. ATYR2810 is in preclinical development for the potential treatment of certain aggressive cancers where NRP2 is ~~implicated, and~~implicated. Due to current market conditions, we ~~plan~~intend to focus our resources on prioritizing our efzofitimod program. Therefore, we have made the strategic decision not to use internal resources to initiate a Phase 1 ~~clinical trial in the fourth quarter~~study of ~~2022.~~ATYR2810 this year. We intend to pursue alternative non-dilutive avenues, including academic collaborations, to advance this program.

In February 2021, we announced two new programs from our discovery pipeline of tRNA synthetases. These programs will investigate the functionality of selected fragments of Alanyl-tRNA synthetase (AARS) and Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (DARS) in immunology, fibrosis and cancer. We are also advancing our preclinical pipeline of tRNA synthetases and NRP2 targeting candidates through internal research efforts, industry and academic collaborations. In June 2022, we announced that18 ~~the target receptor of the fragment AARS-1 was identified as fibroblast growth factor receptor 4, indicating that AARS-1 may have therapeutic potential in fibrosis, inflammation and cancer.~~

In March 2020, our subsidiary, Pangu BioPharma Limited (Pangu BioPharma), together with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) was awarded a grant of approximately $750,000 to build a high-throughput platform for the development of bi-specific antibodies. The project is being funded by the Hong Kong government’s Innovation and Technology Commission (ITC) under the Partnership Research Program (PRP). The PRP aims to support research and development projects undertaken by companies in collaboration with local universities and public research institutions. The ITC funded approximately 50% of the total estimated project cost, and we contributed the remaining 50%. The term of the project was initially for two years and in December 2021, due to complications arising from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, was extended for an additional six months to September 30, 2022 with no additional cost. In May 2021, we announced that Pangu BioPharma and HKUST achieved certain milestones for the first year of the project. The project was completed as of September 30, 2022.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Other Geopolitical and Macroeconomic Conditions

The impacts of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on our business have included the delay in enrollment of our now completed Phase 1b/2a clinical trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis and the discontinuation of some patients in that trial, temporary closures of portions of our facilities and those of our licensees and collaborators, disruptions or restrictions on our employees’ ability to travel and delays in certain research and development activities. Other potential impacts to our business include, but are not limited to, disruptions to or delays in other clinical trials, third-party manufacturing supply and other operations, the potential diversion of healthcare resources away from the conduct of clinical trials to focus on pandemic concerns, interruptions or delays in the operations of the FDA or other regulatory authorities, and our ability to raise capital and conduct business development activities.

In February 2022, the U.S. and global financial markets experienced volatility following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia, which has led to disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity globally. In response to the invasion, the United States, United Kingdom and European Union (EU), along with others, imposed significant new sanctions and export

controls against Russia, Russian banks and certain Russian individuals and may implement additional sanctions or take further punitive actions in the future. The full economic and social impact of the sanctions imposed on Russia (as well as possible future punitive measures that may be implemented), as well as the counter measures imposed by Russia, in addition to the ongoing ~~military~~Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~between Ukraine and Russia,~~ which could conceivably expand into the surrounding region, remains uncertain; however, both the conflict and related sanctions have resulted and could continue to result in disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity in both Europe and globally, and has introduced significant uncertainty into global markets. As a result, our business and results of operations may be adversely affected by the ongoing ~~military~~Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~between Ukraine and Russia,~~ particularly to the extent it escalates to involve additional countries, further economic sanctions or wider military conflict.

In addition to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, global economic and business activities continue to face widespread macroeconomic uncertainties, including labor shortages, inflation and monetary supply shifts, and recession risks, which has resulted in further volatility in the U.S. and global financial markets and which has led to, and may continue to lead to, additional disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity globally. The ultimate long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict and other evolving geopolitical and macroeconomic conditions on our business is uncertain, although we continue to actively monitor the impact of these factors on our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows. The extent of the impact of these factors on our operational and financial performance, including our ability to execute our business strategies and initiatives in the expected timeframe, will depend on future developments, which are uncertain and cannot be predicted; however, any continued or renewed disruption resulting from these factors could negatively impact our business.

We have incurred losses and negative cash flows from operations since our inception. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of ~~$396.9~~$410.1 million and $372.3 million, respectively, and we expect to continue to incur net losses for the foreseeable future. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, we had cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments of ~~$89.3~~$79.6 million and $107.9 million, respectively. We believe that our ~~current~~existing cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments as of September 30, 2022 will be sufficient to meet our material cash requirements from known contractual and other obligations for a period of at least one year from the date of this Quarterly Report. We believe we will meet longer-term material cash requirements from known contractual and other obligations through a combination of cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments. In addition to the factors discussed under “Material Cash Requirements,” our ability to fund our longer-term operating needs beyond the next 12 months will depend on our ability to raise additional funding through equity or debt offerings, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements, and other factors, including those discussed in Part II, Item 1A. “Risk Factors—Risks related to our financial condition and need for additional capital—We will need to raise additional capital or enter into strategic partnering relationships to fund our operations.”

From our inception through ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale of equity securities and convertible debt, venture debt, term loans and through license and collaboration agreement revenues.

In September 2021, we completed an underwritten follow-on public offering of 10,781,250 shares of our common stock, including the full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, at a price to the public of $8.00 per share. The total net proceeds from the offering were approximately $80.6 million, after deducting underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses payable by us.

In February 2020, we completed an underwritten follow-on public offering of 4,235,294 shares of our common stock at a price to the public of $4.25 per share. In March 2020, the underwriters fully exercised their option to purchase additional shares resulting in the issuance of an additional 635,294 shares of common stock. The total net proceeds from the offering were approximately $18.8 million, after deducting underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses payable by us.

In April 2022, we entered into an Open Market Sale AgreementSM with Jefferies LLC (Jefferies) implementing an “at-the-market” offering program (the ATM Offering Program), pursuant to which we may offer and sell, from time to time and at our option, up to an aggregate of $65.0 million of shares of our common stock through Jefferies, acting as sales agent. Jefferies is entitled to a fixed commission rate of up to 3.0% of the gross sales proceeds of shares sold under the ATM Offering Program. During the ~~three and six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we sold an aggregate of ~~69,251~~951,175 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of ~~$2.80~~$3.55 per share for ~~gross~~net proceeds of approximately ~~$0.2~~$3.1 million under the ATM Offering Program.

In September 2020, we entered into a common stock purchase agreement (the Purchase Agreement) with Aspire Capital Fund, LLC (Aspire Capital), which provides that, upon the terms and subject to the conditions and limitations set forth therein, Aspire Capital is committed to purchase up to an aggregate of $20.0 million of shares of our common stock at our request from time to time during the 30 month term of the Purchase Agreement. Concurrently with entering into the Purchase Agreement, we also entered into a registration rights agreement with Aspire Capital, in which we agreed to file one or more registration statements, as permissible and necessary to register under the Securities Act for the resale of the shares of our common stock that have been and may be issued to Aspire Capital under the Purchase Agreement. During 2021, we sold an aggregate of 3,000,000 shares of common stock at a ~~weighted- average~~weighted-average price of $5.09 per share for net proceeds of $15.2 million under the Purchase Agreement. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, there were no issuances or sales under the Purchase Agreement. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022, $4.8 million remains available for issuance and sale under the Purchase Agreement.

We received an $8.0 million upfront payment in January 2020 and a $2.0 million milestone payment in January 2021 following completion of the last subject visit in Kyorin’s Phase 1 clinical trial, and we are eligible to receive up to an additional $165.0 million in the aggregate upon achievement of certain development, regulatory and sales milestones, as well as tiered royalties ranging from the mid-single digits to mid-teens on net sales in Japan. During the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, there were no activities that triggered additional license and collaboration agreement revenue under the Kyorin Agreement.

In March 2020, Pangu BioPharma, together with the HKUST was awarded a grant of approximately $750,000 to build a high-throughput platform for the development of bi-specific antibodies. The project is being funded by the ITC under the PRP. The PRP aims to support research and development projects undertaken by companies in collaboration with local universities and public research institutions. The ITC funded approximately 50% of the total estimated project cost, and we contributed the remaining 50%. During the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we did not receive any further grants from the ITC or otherwise. The project was completed as of September 30, 2022.

The following table sets forth a summary of the net cash flow activity for each of the periods indicated (in thousands):


	Six Months Ended June 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2022			2021			2022			2021
Net cash provided by (used in):
Operating activities	$	(19,236	)	$	(13,519	)	$	(31,517	)	$	(24,989	)
Investing activities		24,597			(27,369	)		45,246			(42,218	)
Financing activities		1,520			26,128			4,533			109,997
Net change in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash	$	6,881		$	(14,760	)	$	18,262		$	42,790

Operating activities. Net cash used in operating activities for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 was ~~$(19.2)~~$(31.5) million and ~~$(13.5)~~$(25.0) million, respectively. The increase in net cash used in operating activities resulted primarily from increased research and development expenditure as efzofitimod has advanced and we continued to advance our discovery efforts in our pipeline of tRNA synthetases and NRP2 ~~antibodies and tRNA systhetases.~~antibodies.

Investing activities. Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 was ~~$24.6~~$45.2 million and ~~$(27.4)~~$(42.2) million, respectively. The fluctuation in net cash provided by (used in) investing activities resulted primarily from the timing differences in investment purchases, sales and maturities, and the fluctuation of our portfolio mix between cash equivalents and investment holdings. The average term to maturity in our investment portfolio is less than two years.

Financing activities. Net cash provided by financing activities for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 consisted primarily of ~~$1.5~~an aggregate of $4.6 million in proceeds from the issuance and sale of common stock through the ATM Offering Program and Prior ATM Offering Program, net of offering costs. Net cash provided by financing activities for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2021 consisted primarily of ~~$10.9~~$80.6 million in net proceeds from the issuance of common stock in an underwritten follow-on public offering, net of offering costs, $14.1 million of proceeds from the issuance and sale of common stock, net of offering costs, through the Prior ATM Program and ~~an agreement implementing~~ an at-the-market offering program with H.C. Wainwright & Co., LLC, which was automatically terminated in March 2021, and $15.2 million of proceeds from the issuance and sale of common stock through the Purchase Agreement, net of offering costs.

To date, we have not generated any revenues from product sales. We expect our expenses to increase in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we continue to advance efzofitimod in clinical development, including a change in our CRO, manufacturing and technology

transfer activities for efzofitimod, ~~continue IND-enabling studies and manufacturing activities for ATYR2810,~~ continue our research and development activities with respect to other potential therapies based on tRNA synthetase biology and NPR2 biology, and seek marketing approval for product candidates that we may develop. In addition, if we obtain marketing approval for any of our product candidates, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution. We currently have no sales or marketing capabilities and would need to expand our organization to support these activities. Accordingly, we will need to obtain substantial additional funding in connection with our continuing operations. Our forecast of the period of time through which our financial resources will be adequate to support our operations is a forward-looking statement that involves risks and uncertainties, and actual results could vary materially.

Our future capital requirements are difficult to forecast and will depend on many factors, including:

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenues, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements, and when we are closer to commercialization of our product candidates potentially through debt financings. To the extent we raise additional capital through the sale of equity, the ownership interest of our stockholders will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of our common stockholders. If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic partnerships or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our product candidates, our other technologies, future revenue streams or research programs or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. The incurrence of additional indebtedness would increase our fixed payment obligations and may require us to agree to certain restrictive covenants, such as limitations on our ability to incur additional debt, limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. We may be unable to raise additional funds on acceptable terms or at all. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and actions taken to slow its spread, the global credit and financial markets have experienced extreme volatility and disruptions, including severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, inflation, rising interest rates and uncertainty about economic stability. Additionally, the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in February 2022 has resulted in further volatility in the U.S. and global financial markets, which has led to disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity globally. The full economic and social impact of the sanctions and export controls imposed on Russia, Russian banks and certain Russian individuals by the United States, the United Kingdom and the EU, along with others, or any additional sanctions or punitive actions imposed or taken in the future in response to the invasion, remains uncertain, and could continue to result in significant uncertainty in the global markets, disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity in both Europe and globally. As a result, our business and results of operations may be adversely affected by the ongoing military conflict between Ukraine and Russia, particularly to the extent it escalates to involve additional countries, further economic sanctions or wider military conflict. If the equity and credit markets deteriorate, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult, more costly and more dilutive. If we are unable to raise additional funds, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market our product candidates even if we would otherwise prefer to develop and market such product candidates ourselves.

As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022, our material cash requirements from known contractual and other obligations consisted primarily of (i) our non-cancelable operating lease for our existing office and laboratory space, ~~(our Existing Lease),~~ (ii) ~~our new facility lease~~the Lease that we entered into in May 2022, ~~(our New Facility Lease),~~ and (iii) our master financing lease agreement that we entered into in April 2022 ~~(our New Financing Lease)~~ for various research and development and informational technology equipment.

Our ~~Existing Lease~~non-cancelable operating lease is ~~non-cancelable and~~ subject to base lease payments, which escalate over the term of the lease, additional charges for common area maintenance and other costs. In July 2018, we entered into a lease amendment that reduced the space we lease from 24,494 square feet to 20,508 square feet and extended the lease term to May 2023. With the lease amendment, we do not have an option to extend ~~the Existing Lease.~~our non-cancelable operating lease.

In May 2022, we entered into ~~the New Facility Lease~~a lease (the Lease) with San Diego Creekside, LLC (Landlord), as lessor, pursuant to which we agreed to lease from Landlord approximately 23,696 rentable square feet (subject to increase pursuant to the terms of the ~~New Facility~~ Lease) of office and laboratory space. The term of the lease (the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Term) will commence upon the earlier of April 1, 2023 or the completion of certain leasehold improvements to the Premises (as defined in the ~~New Facility~~ Lease), but not sooner than March 1, 2023 (the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Commencement Date) and continue for 124 months from the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Commencement Date. We also have one option to extend the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Term for five years. Base rent during such extension period would be at the fair market rent for the Premises. Under the terms of the ~~New Facility~~ Lease, the base rent during the first 12 months of the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Term will be $5.75 per square foot of rentable area per month, subject to certain upward adjustments of approximately 3.0% annually. We are entitled to an allowance of $5.5 million for tenant improvements, including an option to utilize an additional allowance of up to $0.6 million, which, if used by us, would be repaid by us as additional monthly base rent, amortized at eight percent (8.0%) per annum during the ~~New Facility~~ Lease Term. We provided a $0.7 million security deposit in the form of a letter of credit which is included in restricted cash as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022.

In April 2022, we entered into ~~the New Financing Lease~~a financing lease to lease various research and development and information technology equipment over a 48-month term. Financing lease ~~payments~~liabilities total $0.8 million as of September 30, 2022. Additionally, we provided $1.5 million in cash collateral for ~~equipment received~~the financing lease, and this amount is included in ~~June 2022 will start in July~~restricted cash as of September 30, 2022.

~~Our~~Except as described above, our material cash requirements from known contractual obligations have not otherwise changed materially since our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021.

We did not have any off-balance sheet arrangements as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022.

We conduct substantially all of our activities through aTyr Pharma, Inc., a Delaware corporation, at our facility in San Diego, California. aTyr Pharma, Inc. was incorporated in the State of Delaware in September 2005. The condensed consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report include our accounts and our 98% majority-owned subsidiary in Hong Kong, Pangu BioPharma as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022. All intercompany transactions and balances are eliminated in consolidation.

In January 2020, we entered into the Kyorin Agreement with Kyorin for the development and commercialization of efzofitimod for ILD in Japan. Under the Kyorin Agreement, Kyorin received an exclusive right to develop and commercialize efzofitimod in Japan for all forms of ILD, and Kyorin is obligated to fund all research, development, regulatory, marketing and commercialization activities in Japan. In September 2020, Kyorin began dosing of its Phase 1 trial of efzofitimod and completed the last subject visit in December 2020. This achievement triggered a $2.0 million milestone payment, which we received in January 2021. The Phase 1 trial, which was conducted and funded by Kyorin, was a placebo-controlled study to evaluate the safety, PK and immunogenicity of efzofitimod in 32 healthy Japanese male volunteers. Efzofitimod was observed to be generally well-tolerated with no drug-related serious adverse events and PK findings were consistent with previous studies of efzofitimod. We received an $8.0 million upfront payment and a $2.0 milestone payment and we are eligible to receive an additional $165.0 million in the aggregate upon achievement of certain development, regulatory and sales milestones, as well as tiered royalties ranging from the mid-single digits to mid-teens on net sales in Japan. Kyorin ~~plans to join~~has joined the EFZO-FIT™ study, and all study activity in Japan will be funded by Kyorin.

During the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~and June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, there were no activities that triggered additional license and collaboration agreement revenue under the Kyorin Agreement.

To date, our research and development expenses have related primarily to the development of, and clinical trials for, our product candidates, and to research efforts targeting the potential therapeutic application of other tRNA synthetase-based immuno-modulators and, more recently research efforts related to NRP2 biology. These expenses consist primarily of:

Product candidates in later stages of clinical development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages of clinical development, primarily due to the increased size and duration of later-stage clinical trials. We expect that the levels of our research and development expenses will continue to increase in future years and will consist primarily of costs related to our clinical development and manufacturing of efzofitimod for patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, including the costs associated with the change in our CRO and the technology transfer to an additional CDMO of efzofitimod, ~~our preclinical development, planned clinical development and manufacturing of ATYR2810~~ and other potential therapeutics based on tRNA synthetase biology and NRP2 biology.

We cannot determine with certainty the timing of initiation, the duration or the completion costs of current or future preclinical studies and clinical trials of our product candidates. For instance, as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, many clinical trial sites in our completed Phase 1b/2a clinical trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis temporarily suspended dosing of previously-enrolled patients and/or enrollment of new patients and some patients discontinued from the trial.

At this time, due to the inherently unpredictable nature of preclinical and clinical development and given the early stage of our programs, we are unable to estimate with any certainty the costs we will incur or the timelines we will require in the continued development of our product candidates. Clinical and preclinical development timelines, the probability of success and development costs can differ materially from expectations. We anticipate that we will make determinations as to which product candidates to pursue and how much funding to direct to each product candidate on an ongoing basis in response to the results of ongoing and future preclinical studies and clinical trials, regulatory developments and our ongoing assessments as to each product candidate’s commercial potential. In addition, we cannot forecast which programs or product candidates may be subject to future collaborations, when such arrangements will be secured, if at all, and to what degree such arrangements would affect our development plans and capital requirements.

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and related costs for employees in executive, finance and administration, corporate development and administrative support functions, including stock-based compensation expenses and benefits. Other significant general and administrative expenses include accounting, legal services, expenses associated with applying for and maintaining patents, cost of insurance, cost of various consultants, occupancy costs, information systems costs and depreciation.

Our management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations is based on our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States. The preparation of these unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities as of the date of the unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements, as well as the reported expenses during the reporting periods. We monitor and analyze these items for changes in facts and circumstances, and material changes in these estimates could occur in the future. We base our estimates on our historical experience and on various other factors we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Changes in estimates are reflected in reported results for the period in which they become known. Actual results may differ materially from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions. Though the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, tothe ongoing Ukraine-Russian conflict and other geopolitical and macroeconomic conditions on our business and operating results presents additional uncertainty, we continue to use the best information available to us in our critical accounting estimates.

We discuss our accounting policies and assumptions that involve a higher degree of judgment and complexity within Note 2 to our audited consolidated financial statements in our 2021 Annual Report. There have been no material changes to our critical accounting policies and estimates as disclosed in our 2021 Annual Report.

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the three months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (in thousands):


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Increase/		Three Months Ended September 30,				Increase/
	2022		2021		Decrease		2022		2021		Decrease
Research and development expenses	$	9,135	$	7,655	$	1,480	$	9,867	$	5,138	$	4,729
General and administrative expenses		3,449		2,790		659		3,625		2,590		1,035
Other income (expense), net		163		53		110		247		59		188

Research and development expenses. Research and development expenses were ~~$9.1~~$9.9 million and ~~$7.6~~$5.1 million for the three months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase of ~~$1.5~~$4.7 million was due primarily to ~~an increase of $1.0~~$3.0 million in start-up costs for the EFZO-FIT™ study, $0.7 million in increased manufacturing costs for efzofitimod and ATYR2810, an increase of ~~$0.9~~$0.5 million in preclinical development expenses for ATYR2810 and our discovery programs, and an increase of ~~$0.7~~$0.4 million in ~~compensation~~personnel related expenses. ~~The increase was offset by a decrease of $1.1 million in manufacturing costs for efzofitimod due to timing of completion of certain manufacturing activities.~~

General and administrative expenses. General and administrative expenses were ~~$3.4~~$3.6 million and ~~$2.8~~$2.6 million for the three months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 respectively. The increase of ~~$0.7~~$1.0 million was due primarily to an increase of ~~$0.3~~$0.7 million in ~~compensation~~personnel related expense, and an increase of $0.2 million in professional ~~fees, an increase of $0.1 million in travel related expenses and an increase of $0.1 million in utilities expenses.~~fees.

Other income (expense), net. Other income (expense), net was $0.2 million and ~~$53,000~~$59,000 for the three months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase was primarily a result of interest earned on higher cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments balances, which resulted from an underwritten follow-on offering in September 2021, as well as higher interest rates as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 compared to the same period in the prior ~~year, which resulted from an underwritten follow-on offering in September 2021.~~year.

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (in thousands):


	Six Months Ended June 30,				Increase /		Nine Months Ended September 30,				Increase /
	2022		2021		(Decrease)		2022		2021		(Decrease)
Research and development expenses		18,031		12,171		5,860		27,898		17,309		10,589
General and administrative expenses		6,931		5,476		1,455		10,556		8,066		2,490
Other income (expense), net		387		100		287		634		159		475

Research and development expenses. Research and development expenses were ~~$18.0~~$27.9 million and ~~$12.2~~$17.3 million for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase of ~~$5.9~~$10.6 million was due primarily to ~~an increase of $0.8~~$3.6 million in start-up costs for the EFZO-FIT™ study, ~~$2.0~~$2.8 million in ~~product development and~~increased manufacturing costs for efzofitimod and ATYR2810, an increase of ~~$1.6~~$2.0 million in personnel related expenses, and an increase of $2.4 million in preclinical development expenses for ATYR2810 and our discovery ~~programs, and an increase of $1.5 million in compensation related expenses.~~programs.

General and administrative expenses. General and administrative expenses were ~~$6.9~~$10.6 million and ~~$5.5~~$8.1 million for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase of ~~$1.4~~$2.5 million was due primarily to an increase of ~~$0.9~~$1.5 million in ~~compensation related expenses, an increase of $0.3 million in professional fees, an increase of $0.1 million in travel~~personnel related expenses, and an increase of ~~$0.1~~$0.5 million in ~~utilities expenses.~~professional fees.

Other income (expense), net. Other income (expense), net was ~~$0.4~~$0.6 million and ~~$0.1~~$0.2 million for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase of ~~$0.3~~$0.5 million was primarily a result of interest earned on higher cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments balances, which resulted from an underwritten follow-on offering in September 2021 as well as higher interest rates as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 compared to the same period in the prior ~~year, which resulted from an underwritten follow-on offering in September 2021.~~year.

For discussion of recently issued accounting pronouncements, refer to Part I, Item 1, Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements (Unaudited) – Note 1 – Recent Accounting Pronouncements of this Quarterly Report.

We maintain disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Exchange Act) that are designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed in our reports required by the Exchange Act, is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the timelines specified in the SEC’s rules and forms, and that such information is accumulated and communicated to our management, including our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, as appropriate, to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosure. In designing and evaluating the disclosure controls and procedures, management recognized that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can only provide reasonable assurance of achieving the desired control objectives, and in reaching a reasonable level of assurance, management necessarily was required to apply its judgment in evaluating the cost-benefit relationship of possible controls and procedures.

As required by Rule 13a-15(b) under the Exchange Act, we carried out an evaluation, under the supervision and with the participation of our management, including our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, of the effectiveness of the design and operation of our disclosure controls and procedures as of the end of the quarter covered by this Quarterly Report. Based on the foregoing, our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer concluded that our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level as of the end of the quarter covered by this Quarterly Report.

An evaluation was also performed under the supervision and with the participation of our management, including our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, of any changes to our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Exchange Act) during the quarter covered by this Quarterly Report that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting. Our evaluation did not identify any changes in our internal control over financial reporting that occurred during the quarter covered by this Quarterly Report, that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

We are not a party to any material legal proceedings at this time. From time to time, we may be subject to various legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of our business activities. Although the results of litigation and claims cannot be predicted with certainty, we do not believe we are party to any claim or litigation the outcome of which, if determined adversely to us, would individually or in the aggregate be reasonably expected to have a material adverse effect on our results of operations or financial condition. Regardless of the outcome, litigation can have an adverse effect on us because of defense and settlement costs, diversion of management resources and other factors.

Below is a summary of the principal factors that make an investment in our securities speculative or risky. This summary does not address all of the risks that we face. Additional discussion of the risks summarized in this risk factor summary, and other risks that we face, can be found following this summary and should be carefully considered, together with other information in this Quarterly Report and our other filings with the SEC before making investment decisions regarding our securities.

Investing in our securities involves substantial risk. The risks described under the heading “Risk Factors” immediately following this summary may cause us to not realize the full benefits of our strengths or may cause us to be unable to successfully execute all or part of our strategy. Some of the more significant risks we face include the following:

You should carefully consider the following risk factors, as well as the other information in this Quarterly Report and in our other public filings with the SEC. The occurrence of any of these risks could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and/or growth prospects or cause our actual results to differ materially from those contained in forward-looking statements we have made in this Quarterly Report and those we may make from time to time. You should consider all of the risk factors described in our other public filings when evaluating our business.

We will need to raise additional capital or enter into strategic partnering relationships to fund our operations.

The development of therapeutic product candidates is expensive, and we expect our research and development expenses to fluctuate. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022, our cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments were approximately ~~$89.3~~$79.6 million. We believe that our current cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments, will be sufficient to meet our material cash requirements for known contractual and other obligations for a period of at least one year from the date of this Quarterly Report. However, our operating plan may change as a result of many factors currently unknown to us, and we may need to seek additional funds sooner than planned, through equity or debt offerings, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements. Our future funding requirements are difficult to forecast and will depend on many factors, including but not limited to:

In any event, we will require additional capital to complete additional clinical trials, including larger, pivotal clinical trials like the EFZO-FIT™ study, to obtain regulatory approval for, and to commercialize, our product candidates.

Raising funds in the current and future economic environment may present additional challenges. Even if we believe we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans, we may seek additional capital if market conditions are favorable or if we have specific strategic considerations. If we are unable to obtain funding on a timely basis, we may be required to significantly curtail, delay or discontinue one or more of our research or development programs or the commercialization of any product candidates, or we may be unable to expand our operations, maintain our current organization and employee base or otherwise capitalize on our business opportunities, as desired, which could materially affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The terms of any financing may adversely affect the holdings or the rights of our stockholders and the issuance of additional securities by us, or the possibility of such issuance, may cause the market price of our shares to decline. The sale of additional equity or convertible securities would cause dilution to all of our stockholders. The incurrence of indebtedness would result in fixed payment obligations and may require us to agree to certain restrictive covenants, such as limitations on our ability to incur debt, limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the ~~invasion of Ukraine by Russia,~~ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, the global credit and financial markets have experienced volatility and disruptions, including severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, inflation, rising interest rates and uncertainty about economic stability. If the equity and credit markets deteriorate, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult, more costly and more dilutive. In addition, any fundraising efforts may divert our management from their day-to-day activities, which may adversely affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates.

Additionally, financial markets around the world experienced volatility following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in February 2022. In response to the invasion, the United States, United Kingdom and EU, along with others, imposed significant new sanctions and export controls against Russia, Russian banks and certain Russian individuals and may implement additional sanctions or take further punitive actions in the future. The full economic and social impact of the sanctions imposed on Russia (as well as possible future punitive measures that may be implemented), as well as the counter measures imposed by Russia, in addition to the ongoing ~~military~~Ukraine-Russian conflict, ~~between Ukraine and Russia,~~ which could conceivably expand into the surrounding region, remains uncertain; however, both the conflict and related sanctions have resulted and could continue to result in disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and/or supply chain continuity in both Europe and globally, and has introduced significant uncertainty into global markets. In particular, the ~~Russia-Ukraine~~ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict has contributed to rapidly rising costs of living (driven largely by higher energy prices) in Europe and other advanced economies. Further, a weak or declining economy could strain our suppliers and manufacturers, possibly resulting in additional supply disruption for the production of efzofitimod. As a result, our business and results of operations may be adversely affected by the ongoing ~~conflict between Ukraine and Russia,~~Ukraine-Russia, particularly to the extent it escalates to involve additional countries, further economic sanctions or wider military conflict. We are conducting the EFZO-FIT™ study and intend to enroll 264 subjects at multiple centers in ~~North America,~~United States, Europe and Japan.

In addition to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, global economic and business activities continue to face widespread macroeconomic uncertainties, including labor shortages, inflation and monetary supply shifts, and recession risks, which has resulted in further volatility in the U.S. and global financial markets and which has led to, and may continue to lead to, additional disruptions to trade, commerce, pricing stability, credit availability and supply chain continuity globally. The ultimate long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict and other evolving macroeconomic conditions on our business is uncertain, although we continue to actively monitor the impact of these factors on our results of operations, financial condition and cash flows. The extent of the impact of these factors on our operational and financial performance, including our ability to execute our business strategies and initiatives in the expected timeframe, will depend on future developments, which are uncertain and cannot be predicted; however, any continued or renewed disruption resulting from these factors could negatively impact our business.

We may decide to enter into additional strategic partnerships, including collaborations with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, to enhance and accelerate the development and potential commercialization of our product candidates. We face significant competition in seeking appropriate partners, and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex. Moreover, we may not be successful in our efforts to establish any new strategic partnership or other collaborative arrangement for any of our product candidates and programs for a variety of reasons, including strategic fit with partners and differences in analysis of commercial value and regulatory risk. We may not be able to negotiate strategic partnerships on a timely basis, on acceptable terms or at all. We are unable to predict when, if ever, we will enter into any new strategic partnership because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with establishing strategic partnerships. Even if we are successful in our efforts to establish new strategic partnerships, the terms that we agree upon may not be favorable to us and we may not be able to maintain such strategic partnerships if, for example, we encounter unfavorable results or delays during development or approval of a product candidate or sales of an approved product are lower than expectations.

We are a pre-commercial biotherapeutics company and have incurred significant losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future.

We are a pre-commercial biotherapeutics company, and we have not yet generated any revenues from product sales. We have incurred net losses in each year since our inception in 2005, including consolidated net losses of ~~$24.6~~$37.8 million for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022. As of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of ~~$396.9~~$410.1 million and $372.3 million, respectively.

We have devoted most of our financial resources to research and development, including our clinical and preclinical development activities. To date, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale of equity securities and convertible debt and through

venture debt, term loans and license and collaboration agreement revenues. The amount of our future net losses will depend, in part, on the rate of our future expenditures and our ability to obtain funding through equity offerings, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements. We have not completed registrational clinical trials for any product candidate to date and it will be several years, if ever, before we have a product candidate ready for commercialization. Even if we obtain regulatory approval to market a product candidate, our future revenues will depend, in part, upon the size of any markets in which our product candidates have received approval, and our ability to achieve sufficient market acceptance, reimbursement from third-party payors and adequate market share for our product candidates in those markets.

We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for the foreseeable future. We anticipate that our expenses will fluctuate in connection with our ongoing activities as we: continue our research and preclinical and clinical development of efzofitimod ~~and ATYR2810~~ or any other product candidates that we may develop; obtain clinical trial materials and further develop the manufacturing process for our product candidates; seek regulatory approvals for our product candidates that successfully complete clinical trials; ultimately establish a sales, marketing and distribution infrastructure to commercialize any products for which we may obtain marketing approval; seek to identify and validate additional product candidates; maintain, protect and expand our intellectual property portfolio; acquire or in-license other product candidates and technologies; attract and retain skilled personnel; and create additional infrastructure to support our operations as a public company and our product development and planned future commercialization efforts.

Our revenues, expenses and income or losses may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year, such that a period-to-period comparison of our results of operations may not be a good indication of our future performance. In any particular quarter or quarters, our operating results could be below the expectations of securities analysts or investors, which could cause our stock price to decline.

We have never generated any revenue from product sales and may never be profitable.

Our ability to generate revenue and achieve profitability depends on our ability, alone or with strategic collaboration partners, to successfully complete the development of, and obtain the regulatory approvals necessary to commercialize our product candidates. We do not anticipate generating revenues from product sales for the foreseeable future, if ever. Our ability to generate future revenues from product sales depends heavily on our success in:

Even if one of our product candidates is approved for commercial sale, we anticipate incurring significant costs associated with commercializing any such approved product candidate. Our expenses could increase beyond expectations if we are required by the FDA or other regulatory agencies, domestic or foreign, to perform clinical trials and other studies in addition to those that we currently

anticipate. Even if we are able to generate revenues from the sale of any approved products, we may not become profitable and may need to obtain additional funding to continue operations.

Risks related to the discovery, development and regulation of our product candidates

The FDA has not approved any product candidate for the treatment of patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, and as such, there is no established FDA regulatory pathway for approval of a drug in that indication. As a result, our EFZO-FIT™ study, even if successful, may not be sufficient to support FDA approval, which would materially and adversely harm our business.

During the third quarter of 2022, we initiated the global pivotal Phase 3 study of efzofitimod in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis (the EFZO-FIT™ study).To date, the FDA has not approved any product for the treatment of patients with pulmonary

sarcoidosis, and as such, there is no established FDA regulatory pathway for approval of a drug in that indication. The most appropriate efficacy endpoints to demonstrate clinically meaningful treatment effects have not been established. In this instance, without regulatory precedent for established endpoints, the FDA has not endorsed a specific means for measurement of steroid reduction. Therefore, we are measuring steroid reduction in multiple ways in an effort to support an approval. Our rationale for selecting endpoints for the EFZO-FIT™ study is based on the anticipated effects of efzofitimod in pulmonary sarcoidosis consistent with the results of our completed Phase 1b/2a study in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. The FDA has highlighted the risk of proceeding with a larger study of longer duration based on our limited Phase 1b/2a data, and our inability to replicate the findings in our Phase 1b/2a study would not support FDA approval and will adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, the FDA has substantial discretion in the approval process and may refuse to accept any application or decide that our data are insufficient for approval and require additional preclinical, clinical or other trials, which would be costly and significantly delay the potential for regulatory approval. In particular, even if we were to receive positive data from the EFZO-FIT™ study, the FDA may determine that the data is not compelling enough for approval. The FDA may also require a panel of experts, referred to as an Advisory Committee, to deliberate on the adequacy of the safety and efficacy data to support approval. The opinion of the Advisory Committee, although not binding, may have a significant impact on our ability to obtain approval of efzofitimodbased on the completed clinical trials.

We may encounter substantial delays and other challenges in our planned clinical trials or we may fail to demonstrate safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of applicable regulatory authorities.

Before obtaining marketing approval from regulatory authorities for the sale of our product candidates, we must conduct extensive clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of the product candidates in humans. Clinical trials are expensive, time-consuming, often delayed and uncertain as to outcome. We cannot guarantee that future trials we may plan to conduct, will be initiated or conducted as planned or completed on schedule, if at all. We cannot assure you that our product candidates will not be subject to new clinical holds or significant delay in the future. For example, in our completed Phase 1b/2a clinical trial of efzofitimod in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, FDG-PET/CT was not evaluable due to incomplete data primarily caused by operational issues related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Any inability to initiate or complete clinical trials of our product candidates in the United States, as a result of clinical holds or otherwise, would delay our clinical development plans, may require us to incur additional clinical development costs and could impair our ability to obtain U.S. regulatory approval for such product candidates.

A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing, and our clinical trials may not be successful. Events that may prevent successful or timely completion of clinical development include, but are not limited to:

Any delay in or inability to successfully complete preclinical and clinical development (including any delays resulting from any changes in our CRO) could result in additional costs to us and impair our ability to generate revenue. In addition, if we make manufacturing or formulation changes to our product candidates (including our planned technology transfer to another CDMO for bulk drug substance and production capacity changes for efzofitimod), we may need to conduct additional studies to bridge our modified product candidates to earlier versions.

If the results of our future clinical trials are perceived to be negative or inconclusive, or if there are safety concerns or adverse events associated with our product candidates, we may be required to perform additional clinical trials to support approval or be subject to additional post-marketing testing requirements; be delayed in obtaining marketing approval for our product candidates, if at all; obtain approval for indications or patient populations that are not as broad as intended or desired; obtain approval with labeling that includes significant use or distribution restrictions or safety warnings; be subject to changes in the way the product is manufactured or administered; have regulatory authorities withdraw their approval of the product or impose restrictions on its distribution in the form of a modified risk evaluation and mitigation strategy; be subject to litigation; or experience damage to our reputation.

To date, the safety and efficacy of efzofitimod has only been studied in a limited number of humans and ATYR2810 has not been studied in humans at all. Accordingly, efzofitimod, ATYR2810 and any future product candidates could potentially cause unexpected adverse events. In addition, the inclusion of critically ill patients in our clinical trials may result in deaths or other adverse medical events due to the natural progression of the disease.

Further, if patients drop out of any future trials, miss scheduled doses or follow-up visits or otherwise fail to follow trial protocols, or if our trials are otherwise disrupted due to the ongoing ~~conflict in Ukraine or~~COVID-19 pandemic and the ~~COVID-19 pandemic~~ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict or actions taken to slow its spread, the integrity of data from our trials may be compromised or not accepted by the FDA or other regulatory authorities, which would represent a significant setback for the applicable program. In addition, the ongoing ~~conflict in Ukraine~~COVID-19 pandemic and the ~~COVID-19 pandemic~~ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict have impacted clinical trials broadly, including our completed efzofitimod Phase 1b/2a trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, where many sites stopped enrollment and patients chose not to enroll or continue participating in the trial due to the impact of ongoing COVID-19. While we completed the clinical trial, the availability of results from the Phase 1b/2a clinical trial was delayed to September 2021. We may experience delays in site initiation and patient enrollment, failures to comply with study protocols, delays in the manufacture of study drug for clinical testing and other difficulties in starting or completing our future trials due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, including the emergence of new variants of COVID-19, as well as the ongoing ~~conflict in Ukraine.~~Ukraine-Russia conflict.

Interim, top-line and preliminary data from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

From time to time, we may publicly disclose preliminary or top-line data from our clinical studies, which are based on a preliminary analysis of then-available data, and the results and related findings and conclusions are subject to change following a more comprehensive review of the data related to the particular study or trial. We also make assumptions, estimations, calculations and conclusions as part of our analyses of data, and we may not have received or had the opportunity to fully and carefully evaluate all data. As a result, the top-line results that we report may differ from future results of the same studies, or different conclusions or considerations may qualify such results, once additional data have been received and fully evaluated. Top-line data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data we previously published. As a result, top-line data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. From time to time, we may also disclose interim data from our clinical studies.

In addition, we may report interim analyses of only certain endpoints rather than all endpoints. Interim data from clinical trials that we may complete are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues and more patient data become available. Adverse differences between preliminary or interim data and final data could significantly harm our business prospects. Further, disclosure of interim data by us or by our competitors could result in volatility in the price of our common stock.

Further, others, including regulatory agencies, may not accept or agree with our assumptions, estimates, calculations, conclusions or analyses or may interpret or weigh the importance of data differently, which could impact the value of the particular program, the approvability or commercialization of a particular product candidate or product and our company in general. In addition, the information we choose to publicly disclose regarding a particular study or clinical trial is based on what is typically extensive information, and you or others may not agree with what we determine is material or otherwise appropriate information to include in our disclosure, and any information we determine not to disclose may ultimately be deemed significant with respect to future decisions, conclusions, views, activities or otherwise regarding a particular product, product candidate or our business. If the top-line data that we report differ from actual results, or if others, including regulatory authorities, disagree with the conclusions reached, our ability to obtain approval for, and commercialize, our product candidates may be harmed, which could harm our business, operating results, prospects or financial condition.

If we are unable to successfully complete or otherwise advance clinical development, obtain regulatory or marketing approval for, or successfully commercialize our therapeutic product candidates ~~including efzofitimod and ATYR2810,~~ or experience significant delays in doing so, our business will be materially harmed.

To date, we have expended significant time, resources and effort on the discovery and development of product candidates related to the extracellular proteins derived from the histidyl tRNA synthetase (HARS) family and NRP2 biology, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials. We have not yet commenced or completed any evaluation of our product candidates in human clinical trials designed to demonstrate efficacy to the satisfaction of the FDA. Before we can market or sell our therapeutic candidates in the United States or foreign jurisdictions, we will need to commence and complete additional clinical trials (including larger, pivotal trials like the EFZO-FIT™ study, which ~~we have not yet~~recently commenced), manage clinical and manufacturing activities, obtain necessary regulatory approvals from the FDA in the United States and from similar regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions, obtain adequate clinical and commercial manufacturing supplies, build commercial capabilities, which may include entering into a marketing collaboration with a third party, and in some jurisdictions, obtain reimbursement authorization, among other things. We cannot assure you that we will be able to successfully complete the necessary clinical trials, obtain regulatory approvals, secure an adequate

commercial supply for, or otherwise successfully commercialize our therapeutic candidates. If we do not receive regulatory approvals for our product candidates, and even if we do obtain regulatory approvals, we may never generate significant revenues, if any, from commercial sales. If we fail to successfully commercialize our therapeutic candidates, we may be unable to generate sufficient revenues to sustain and grow our company, and our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations will be adversely affected.

We have encountered and may continue to encounter delays and difficulties enrolling patients in our clinical trials for a variety of reasons, including the limited number of patients who have the diseases for which certain of our product candidates are being studied, which could delay or halt the clinical development of our product candidates.

Identifying and qualifying patients to participate in clinical trials for our product candidates is critical to our success. Certain of the conditions for which we may elect to evaluate our product candidates may be rare diseases with limited patient pools from which to draw for clinical trials.

For example, we are currently conducting the EFZO-FIT™ study in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. While estimates of pulmonary sarcoidosis prevalence vary, we estimate that pulmonary sarcoidosis affects an estimated 200,000 patients in the United States. Of that population, however, we estimate that approximately 30% experience progressive disease such that our targeted population is significantly smaller. The eligibility criteria for any of our future clinical trials may further limit the pool of available participants in our trials. For example, if patients have been previously prescribed certain other medications to treat pulmonary sarcoidosis, they may not be eligible to participate in the EFZO-FIT™ study, thus further reducing our patient pool. We may be unable to identify and enroll a sufficient number of patients with the disease in question and who meet the eligibility criteria for, and are willing to participate in, the clinical trials. Once enrolled, patients may decide or be required to discontinue from the clinical trial due to inconvenience, burden of trial requirements, adverse events associated with efzofitimod, limitations required by trial protocols or other reasons.

Our ability to identify, recruit, enroll and maintain a sufficient number of patients, or those with required or desired characteristics to achieve diversity in future clinical trials in a timely manner may also be affected by other factors, including, but not limited to:

We plan to seek initial marketing approval in the United States. We may not be able to initiate or continue clinical trials if we cannot enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in the clinical trials required by the FDA or other regulatory agencies. Our ability to successfully initiate, enroll and complete a clinical trial in any foreign country is subject to numerous risks unique to conducting business in foreign countries, including, but not limited to:

Additionally, if patients are unwilling to participate in our clinical trials because of negative publicity from adverse events in our clinical trials or in the biotechnology or protein therapeutics industries or for other reasons, including competitive clinical trials for similar patient populations or complications arising from the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~in Ukraine,~~ the timeline for recruiting patients, conducting studies and obtaining regulatory approval of potential products may be delayed. These delays could result in increased costs, delays in advancing our product development or termination of our clinical trials altogether. If we have difficulty enrolling and maintaining a sufficient number of patients to conduct our clinical trials as planned for any reason, we may need to delay, limit or terminate clinical trials, any of which would have an adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Furthermore, clinical trial delays could also shorten any periods during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates or allow our competitors to bring products to market before we do, which could impair our ability to obtain

orphan exclusivity and successfully commercialize our product candidates and may have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our current product candidates and any other product candidates that we may develop from our discovery engine represent novel therapeutic approaches, which may cause significant delays or may not result in any commercially viable drugs.

We have concentrated the bulk of our research and development efforts to date on studying extracellular functions of tRNA synthetase biology, a newly discovered area of biology. We have also identified NRP2 as a receptor for efzofitimod and have focused research efforts on NRP2 biology. Our future success is highly dependent on the successful development of product candidates based on these new areas of biology, including efzofitimod, ATYR2810 and additional product candidates arising from proteins derived from tRNA synthetases or targeting the NRP2 receptor or other pathways, including AARS and DARS. Extracellular tRNA synthetase-based biology and NRP2 biology represents a novel approach to drug discovery and development, and to our knowledge, no drugs have been developed using, or based upon, this approach. Despite the successful development of other naturally occurring proteins, such as erythropoietin and insulin, as therapeutics, proteins derived from HARS, AARS or DARS families or targeting the NRP2 receptor and from other tRNA synthetase pathways represent a novel class of protein therapeutics, and our development of these therapeutics is based on our new understanding of human physiology. In particular, the mechanism of action of tRNA synthetases and their role in immunomodulation and tissue regeneration have not been studied extensively, nor has the safety of this class of protein therapeutics been evaluated extensively in humans. The therapeutic product candidates that we elect to develop may not have the physiological functions that we currently ascribe to them, may have limited or no therapeutic applications, or may present safety problems of which we are not yet aware. We cannot be sure that our discovery engine will yield therapeutic product candidates that are safe, effective, approvable by regulatory authorities, manufacturable, scalable, or profitable.

Because our work represents a new therapeutic approach, developing and commercializing our product candidates, including efzofitimod and ATYR2810, subjects us to a number of challenges, including:

Moreover, public perception of safety issues, including adoption of new therapeutics or novel approaches to treatment, may adversely influence the willingness of subjects to participate in clinical trials, or if approved, of physicians to adopt and prescribe novel therapeutics. Physicians, hospitals and third-party payors often are slow to adopt new products, technologies and treatment practices. Physicians may decide the therapy is too complex or unproven to adopt and may choose not to administer the therapy. Based on these and other factors, healthcare providers and payors may decide that the benefits of any therapeutic candidates for which we receive regulatory approval do not or will not outweigh its costs. Any inability to successfully develop commercially viable drugs would have an adverse impact on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Data generated in our preclinical studies and patient sample data relating to the immunomodulatory domain of HARS, including efzofitimod, may not be predictive or indicative of the immunomodulatory activity or therapeutic effects, if any, of our product candidates in patients.

Our scientists discovered the activity of the immunomodulatory domain of HARS, including efzofitimod, using in vitro and in vivo screening systems designed to test potential immunomodulatory activity in animal models of immune activity or inflammation. Translational medicine, or the application of basic scientific findings to develop therapeutics that promote human health, is subject to a number of inherent risks. In particular, scientific hypotheses formed from preclinical observations may prove to be incorrect, and the

data generated in animal models or observed in limited patient populations may be of limited value, and may not be applicable in clinical trials conducted under the controlled conditions required by applicable regulatory requirements and our protocols. For example, we have not extensively studied the activity of efzofitimod in patients with ILD.

Our classification of diseases based on the existence of excessive immune cell activation or lack thereof and our hypothesis that these represent potential indications for our product candidates may not prove to be therapeutically relevant. Accordingly, the conclusions that we have drawn from animal studies and patient sample data regarding the potential immunomodulatory activity of efzofitimod may not be substantiated in other animal models or in clinical trials. Further, based on the discovery of the involvement of NRP2 in the mechanism of action of efzofitimod, we are still expanding our knowledge of the role of the NRP2 pathway in regulating immune responses. Although we were able to establish clinical proof-of-concept for efzofitimod in our Phase 1b/2a clinical trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis, this may not be validated in other clinical trials. Any failure to demonstrate in controlled clinical trials the requisite safety and efficacy of our product candidates will adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

We have previously conducted and we or our third party collaborators may conduct additional clinical trials of efzofitimod outside of the United States. The FDA, however, may not accept data from such trials, in which case our development plans will be delayed, which could materially harm our business.

In June 2018, we completed a Phase 1 clinical trial of efzofitimod in healthy subjects in Australia. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigated the safety, tolerability, immunogenicity, and PK of intravenous efzofitimod in 36 healthy volunteers. In addition, we or our third party collaborators may choose to conduct additional clinical trials for efzofitimod in countries outside the United States, subject to applicable regulatory approval. For example, our partner, Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Kyorin), conducted an efzofitimod Phase 1 clinical trial in 32 healthy Japanese male volunteers, and we will seek to enroll subjects in the EZFO-FIT™ study in centers in ~~North America,~~United States, Europe and Japan.

Although the FDA may accept data from clinical trials conducted outside the United States, acceptance of such study data is generally subject to certain conditions. For example, in cases where data from foreign clinical trials are intended to serve as the basis for marketing approval in the United States, the FDA will generally not approve the application on the basis of foreign data alone unless (i) the data are applicable in the U.S. population and U.S. medical practice; and (ii) the trials were performed by clinical investigators of recognized competence and pursuant to GCP regulations. Additionally, the FDA’s clinical trial requirements, including sufficient size of patient populations and statistical powering, must be met. In addition, when studies are conducted only at sites outside of the United States, the FDA generally does not provide advance comment on the clinical protocols for the studies, and therefore there is an additional risk that the FDA could determine that the study design or protocol for a non-U.S. clinical trial was inadequate, which would likely require us to conduct additional clinical trials, in which case our development plans will be delayed, which could materially harm our business.

Conducting clinical trials outside the United States also exposes us to additional risks, including risks associated with:

Further, as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the integrity of data from any clinical trials conducted outside of the United States may not be acceptable to the FDA.

Our therapeutic product candidates may cause undesirable side effects or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval, limit the commercial profile of an approved label, or result in significant negative consequences following marketing approval, if any.

Undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates, or safety, tolerability or toxicity issues that may occur in our preclinical studies, clinical trials or in the future, could cause us or regulatory authorities to interrupt, restrict, delay, or halt clinical trials and could result in a more restrictive label or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other comparable foreign authorities.

In our Phase 1b/2 clinical trials for our first clinical trial candidate, ATYR1940 (slightly truncated recombinant HARS protein), completed in 2016 and 2017, we observed low levels of antibodies to ATYR1940 in some subjects in response to the administration of ATYR1940. Although these antibody observations were without associated clinical symptoms, the development of higher levels of such

antibodies over a longer course of treatment may ultimately limit efficacy and trigger a negative autoimmune response. In addition, some patients in our Phase 1b/2 clinical trials of ATYR1940 experienced generalized infusion related reactions (IRRs) and discontinued dosing. We established procedural measures, including a decreased concentration and intravenous delivery rate of ATYR1940, in an effort to minimize the occurrence of generalized IRRs and the formation of anti-drug antibodies. After implementation of these procedures, we observed a decreased rate of IRRs in our clinical trials of ATYR1940. We did not observe IRRs in our completed Phase 1b/2a clinical trial of efzofitimod in patients in pulmonary sarcoidosis or in our other efzofitimod clinical trials, but we cannot assure that this will be the case in any future clinical trials. Generalized IRRs and other complications or side effects could harm further development and/or commercialization of our product candidates, including efzofitimod. Additionally, our product candidates are designed to be administered by intravenous injection, which may cause side effects, including acute immune responses and injection site reactions. The risk of adverse immune responses remains a significant concern for protein therapeutics, and we cannot assure that these or other risks will not occur in any of our clinical trials our product candidates. There is also a risk of delayed adverse events as a result of long-term exposure to protein therapeutics that must be administered repeatedly for the management of chronic conditions, such as the development of antibodies, which may occur over time. If any such adverse events occur, which may include the development of a negative autoimmune response from antibodies or the occurrence of IRRs associated with antibodies, further advancement of our clinical trials could be halted or delayed, which would have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

If one or more of our product candidates receives marketing approval, and we or others later identify undesirable side effects or other safety concerns caused by such products, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result.

Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the particular product candidate, if approved, and could significantly harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

We may not be successful in our efforts to identify or discover additional product candidates.

A key element of our strategy is to expand applications of efzofitimod to additional immune-mediated diseases, advance the development of ATYR2810 for cancer indications and leverage our discovery engine to identify the therapeutic potential of NRP2 biology and extracellular proteins derived from tRNA synthetases to help identify or discover additional product candidates. A significant portion of the research that we are conducting involves new compounds and drug discovery methods, including our proprietary technology. Our drug discovery activities using our proprietary technology may not be successful in identifying product candidates that are useful in treating diseases. Our research programs may initially show promise in identifying potential product candidates, yet fail to yield product candidates for clinical development for a number of reasons, including:

Research programs to identify new product candidates require substantial technical, financial and human resources. We may choose to focus our efforts and resources on a potential product candidate that ultimately proves to be unsuccessful. If we are unable to identify suitable product candidates for preclinical and clinical development and regulatory approval, we will not be able to generate product revenues, which would have an adverse impact on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

We may face manufacturing stoppages and other challenges associated with the clinical or commercial manufacture of our product candidates.

All entities involved in the preparation of therapeutics for clinical trials or commercial sale, including our existing CDMOs for our product candidates, are subject to extensive regulation. Components of a finished therapeutic product approved for commercial sale

or use in late-stage clinical trials must be manufactured in accordance with cGMPs. These regulations govern manufacturing processes and procedures (including record keeping) and the implementation and operation of quality systems to control and assure the quality of investigational products and products approved for sale. Poor control of production processes can lead to the introduction of contaminants or to inadvertent changes in the properties or stability of our product candidates that may not be detectable in final product testing. We or our CDMOs must supply all necessary documentation in support of a biologics license application (BLA) on a timely basis and must adhere to the FDA’s Good Laboratory Practices and cGMP regulations enforced by the FDA through its facilities inspection program. The facilities and quality systems of our CDMOs and other CROs must pass a pre-approval inspection for compliance with applicable regulations as a condition of regulatory approval of our product candidates. If these facilities do not pass a pre-approval plant inspection, FDA approval of the products will not be granted. If global health concerns prevent the FDA or other regulatory authorities from conducting their regular inspections, it could impact the ability of our CDMOs to provide us with product for clinical trials.

The regulatory authorities also may, at any time following approval of a product for sale, audit the facilities in which the product is manufactured. If any such inspection or audit of our facilities or those of our CDMOs and CROs identifies a failure to comply with applicable regulations or if a violation of our product specifications or applicable regulations occurs independently of such an inspection or audit, we or the relevant regulatory authority may require remedial measures that may be costly or time-consuming for us or a third party to implement and that may include the temporary or permanent suspension of a clinical trial or commercial sales or the temporary or permanent closure of a facility. Any such remedial measures imposed upon us or third parties with whom we contract could materially harm our business.

In addition, quarantines, shelter-in-place and similar government orders, or the perception that such orders, shutdowns or other restrictions on the conduct of business operations could occur, related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic or other infectious diseases could impact personnel at our CDMOs and CROs, which could disrupt our clinical timelines and have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations. Additionally, the production of COVID-19 vaccines may disrupt the availability of raw materials and consumables required to manufacture our product candidates, which could result in decreased manufacturing and supply of these product candidates to support our planned clinical trials or regulatory filings.

If we or any of our CDMOs and CROs fail to maintain regulatory compliance, the FDA can impose regulatory sanctions including, among other things, refusal to approve a pending application for a new biologic product, or revocation of a pre-existing approval. Additionally, if supply from one approved manufacturer is interrupted, there could be a significant disruption in clinical or commercial supply. An alternative manufacturer would need to be qualified through a BLA supplement which could result in further delay. The regulatory agencies may also require additional studies if a new manufacturer is relied upon for commercial production. Switching manufacturers may involve substantial costs and is likely to result in a delay in our desired clinical and commercial timelines.

In addition, the manufacture of our product candidates presents challenges associated with biologics production, including the inherent instability of larger, more complex molecules and the need to ensure uniformity of the drug substance produced in different facilities or across different batches. The process of manufacturing biologics is extremely susceptible to product loss due to contamination, equipment failure or improper installation or operation of equipment, or vendor or operator error. Even minor deviations from normal manufacturing and distribution processes for any of our product candidates could result in reduced production yields, product defects, and other supply disruptions. Furthermore, although tRNA synthetases represent a class of proteins that may share immunomodulatory properties in various physiological pathways, each tRNA synthetase has a different structure and may have unique manufacturing requirements that are not applicable across the entire class. For example, fusion proteins, such as efzofitimod, include an additional antibody domain to improve PK characteristics, and may therefore require a more complex and time-consuming manufacturing process than other tRNA synthetase-based therapeutic candidates. Currently, we are producing our efzofitimod molecule in E.coli by expression in inclusion bodies and refolding to recreate the native structure. The manufacturing processes for one of our product candidates may not be readily adaptable to other product candidates that we develop, and we may need to engage multiple third-party manufacturers to produce our product candidates. For example, we recently engaged an additional CDMO to manufacture efzofitimod and will need to complete a technology transfer and validation process before the new CDMO will be able to produce additional bulk drug substance for our clinical trials or otherwise. Any adverse developments affecting manufacturing operations for our product candidates may result in shipment delays, inventory shortages, lot failures, withdrawals or recalls or other interruptions in the supply of our drug substance and drug product which could delay the development of our product candidates. We may also have to write off inventory, incur other charges and expenses for supply of drug product that fails to meet specifications or expires, undertake costly remediation efforts, or seek more costly manufacturing alternatives. Any manufacturing stoppage or delay, or any inability to consistently manufacture adequate supplies of our product candidates for our clinical trials or on a commercial scale will harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Even if we complete the necessary preclinical studies and clinical trials, we cannot predict when or if we will obtain regulatory approval to commercialize a product candidate, and the scope of any approval may be narrower than we expect.

We cannot commercialize a product until the appropriate regulatory authorities have reviewed and approved the product candidate. Even if our product candidates demonstrate safety and efficacy in clinical trials, the regulatory agencies may not complete their review processes in a timely manner, or we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval.

Additional delays may result if an FDA advisory committee or regulatory authority recommends non-approval or restrictions on approval. In addition, we may experience delays or rejections based upon additional government regulation from future legislation or administrative action, or changes in regulatory agency policy during the period of product development, clinical trials and the review process. Regulatory agencies also may approve a product candidate for fewer or more limited indications than requested, may impose restrictions on dosing or may grant approval subject to the performance of post-marketing studies. In addition, regulatory agencies may not approve the labeling claims that are necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of our product candidates.

Although the FDA has granted orphan drug designation to efzofitimod for the treatment of sarcoidosis and systemic sclerosis, we may not receive orphan drug designation for efzofitimod in other jurisdictions or for other indications that we may pursue, or for any other product candidates we may develop under any new applications for orphan drug designation that we may submit, and any orphan drug designations that we have received or may receive may not confer marketing exclusivity or other expected commercial benefits.

The FDA granted orphan drug designation to efzofitimod for the treatment of sarcoidosis and systemic sclerosis (also known as scleroderma). We may apply for orphan drug designation for efzofitimod for other indications and product candidates in the United States. Orphan drug status confers up to ten years of marketing exclusivity in Europe, and up to seven years of marketing exclusivity in the United States, for a particular product in a specified indication. Obtaining an orphan drug designation can be difficult and we cannot assure you that we will be able to obtain orphan drug designation in other jurisdictions or for other indications, or rely on orphan drug or similar designations to exclude other companies from manufacturing or selling products using the same principal mechanisms of action for the same indications that we pursue beyond these timeframes. Furthermore, marketing exclusivity in Europe can be reduced from ten years to six years if the initial designation criteria have significantly changed since the market authorization of the orphan product. Even if we are the first to obtain marketing authorization for an orphan drug indication, there are circumstances under which a competing product may be approved for the same indication during the period of marketing exclusivity, such as if the later product is shown to be clinically superior to the orphan product, or if the later product is deemed a different product than ours. Further, the marketing exclusivity would not prevent competitors from obtaining approval of the same product candidate as ours for indications other than those in which we have been granted orphan drug designation, or for the use of other types of products in the same indications as our orphan product.

A breakthrough therapy or fast track designation by the FDA, including the fast track designation we received for efzofitimod, may not lead to expedited development or regulatory review or approval.

In August 2022, the FDA granted fast track designation to efzofitimod for the treatment of pulmonary ~~sarcoidosis.~~sarcoidosis, and in September 2022, the FDA granted fast track designation to efzofitimod for the treatment of scleroderma. We may seek, from time to time, breakthrough therapy or fast track designation for our product candidates. A breakthrough therapy designation is for a product candidate intended to treat a serious or life-threatening condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product candidate may demonstrate substantial improvement on a clinically significant endpoint(s) over available therapies. A fast track designation is for a product candidate that treats a serious or life-threatening condition, and preclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address an unmet medical need. The FDA has broad discretion whether or not to grant these designations. Accordingly, even if we believe a particular product candidate is eligible for breakthrough therapy or fast track designation, we cannot assure you that the FDA would decide to grant it. Even if we receive breakthrough therapy or fast track designation, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures. The FDA may withdraw breakthrough therapy or fast track designation if it believes that the product no longer meets the qualifying criteria. In addition, the breakthrough therapy program is a relatively new program. As a result, we cannot be certain whether any of our product candidates can or will qualify for breakthrough therapy designation. Our business may be harmed if we are unable to avail ourselves of these or any other expedited development and regulatory pathways.

Disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding shortages or global health concerns could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA to review and approve proposed clinical trials or new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, statutory, regulatory, and policy changes, the FDA’s ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and other events that may otherwise affect the FDA’s ability to perform routine functions. Average review times at the agency have fluctuated in recent years as a result. In addition, government funding of other government agencies that fund research and development activities is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable. Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new product candidates to be reviewed and/or approved

by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years, including for 35 days beginning on December 22, 2018, the U.S. government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA, have had to furlough critical FDA employees and stop critical activities.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate, our products will remain subject to regulatory scrutiny.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate, such product will be subject to ongoing regulatory requirements for manufacturing, labeling, packaging, storage, advertising, promotion, sampling, record-keeping, conduct of post-marketing studies, adverse event reporting and submission of safety, efficacy, and other post-market information, including both federal and state requirements in the United States and requirements of comparable foreign regulatory authorities.

We and our CDMOs will be subject to continual review and inspections to assess compliance with cGMPs and adherence to commitments made in any BLA or marketing authorization application (MAA). Accordingly, we and others with whom we work will need to continue to expend time, money, and effort in all areas of regulatory compliance, including manufacturing, production, and quality control.

Any regulatory approvals that we receive for our product candidates may be subject to limitations on the approved indicated uses for which the product may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, or contain requirements for potentially costly post-marketing testing, including Phase 4 clinical trials, and surveillance to monitor the safety and efficacy of the product candidate. If new safety issues emerge, we may be required to change our labeling. Any new legislation addressing drug safety or efficacy issues could result in delays in product development or commercialization, or increased costs to assure compliance.

We will have to comply with requirements concerning advertising and promotion for our products. Violations, including actual or alleged promotion of our products for unapproved, or off-label, uses are subject to enforcement letters, inquiries and investigations, and civil and criminal sanctions. Any actual or alleged failure to comply with labeling and promotion requirements may have a negative impact on our business. In the United States, engaging in impermissible promotion of our products for off-label uses can also subject us to false claims litigation under federal and state statutes, which can lead to civil and criminal penalties and fines, agreements that would materially restrict the manner in which we promote or distribute our drug products and exclusion from Medicare, Medicaid and other federal and state healthcare programs. These false claims statutes include the federal False Claims Act, which allows any individual to bring a lawsuit against a pharmaceutical company on behalf of the federal government alleging submission of false or fraudulent claims, or causing to present such false or fraudulent claims, for payment by a federal program such as Medicare or Medicaid. If the government prevails in the lawsuit, the individual will share in any fines or settlement funds. If we do not lawfully promote our approved products, we may become subject to such litigation and, if we are not successful in defending against such actions, those actions could compromise our ability to become profitable.

The holder of an approved BLA or MAA must submit new or supplemental applications and obtain approval for certain changes to the approved product, product labeling, or manufacturing process. We could also be asked to conduct post-marketing clinical trials to verify the safety and efficacy of our products in general or in specific patient subsets. If original marketing approval were obtained through an accelerated approval pathway, we could be required to conduct a successful post-marketing clinical trial to confirm clinical benefit for our products. An unsuccessful post-marketing study or failure to complete such a trial could result in the withdrawal of marketing approval.

If a regulatory agency discovers previously unknown problems with a product, such as adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured, or disagrees with the promotion, marketing or labeling of a product, such regulatory agency may impose restrictions on that product or us, including requiring withdrawal of the product from the market. If we fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements, a regulatory agency or enforcement authority may, among other things:

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response, and could generate negative publicity. Any failure to comply with ongoing regulatory requirements may significantly and adversely affect our ability to commercialize and generate revenue from our products. If regulatory sanctions are applied or if regulatory approval is withdrawn, the value of our company and our operating results will be adversely affected.

We depend on our existing collaborations and may depend on collaborations with additional third parties for the development and commercialization of certain of our product candidates. If our collaborations are not successful, we may not be able to capitalize on the market potential of these product candidates.

We have entered into, and may continue to enter into, research collaborations for the research and development of specified product candidates. Our sole source of revenue depends upon the performance by these collaborators of their responsibilities under these arrangements. For example, while we are eligible to receive up to an additional $165.0 million in milestone payments under the Kyorin Agreement, as well as tiered royalties ranging from the mid-single digits to mid-teens on net sales in Japan, whether and when we receive these payments will depend on Kyorin’s development and commercialization of efzofitimod in Japan, over which we have limited control. The development efforts of our collaborators are subject to the same risks and uncertainties described above with respect to our independently developed product candidates.

Some collaborators may not succeed in their product development efforts. It is possible that our collaborators may be unable to obtain regulatory approval of our product candidates or successfully market and commercialize any such products for which regulatory approval is obtained. For example, while we received a $2.0 million milestone payment in January 2021, if Kyorin’s operations are limited due to the impacts of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in Japan or in other regions where Kyorin operates or relies on third party operations, including as a result of the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~in Ukraine,~~ the development of efzofitimod in Japan may be significantly delayed and adversely affected, which may in turn delay or limit our receipt of any additional payments under the Kyorin Agreement. Other collaborators may not devote sufficient time or resources to the programs covered by these arrangements, and we may have limited or no control over the time or resources allocated by these collaborators to these programs. The occurrence of any of these events may cause us to derive little or no revenue from these arrangements, lose opportunities to validate our product candidates, or force us to curtail or cease our development efforts in these areas.

Our collaborators may breach or terminate their agreements with us, including termination without cause at subject to certain prior written notice requirements, and we may be unsuccessful in entering into and maintaining other collaborative arrangements for the development of product candidates. For example, Kyorin has the right to terminate the agreement for any reason upon 90 days advance written notice to us. In addition, if we are unable to maintain existing collaboration arrangements or enter into new ones, our ability to generate licensing, milestone or royalty revenues would be materially impaired.

We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct some or all aspects of our product manufacturing, protocol development, research and preclinical and clinical testing, and these third parties may not perform satisfactorily.

We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct some or all aspects of product manufacturing, protocol development, research and preclinical and clinical testing with respect to our product candidates. Any of these third parties may terminate their engagements with us at any time. If we need to enter into alternative arrangements, it could delay our product development activities. Our reliance on these third parties for research and development activities reduces our control over these activities but does not relieve us of our responsibility to ensure compliance with all required regulations and study protocols. For example, for any product candidates that we develop and commercialize on our own, we will remain responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable study plan and protocols and GCPs so long as we continue to develop and commercialize on our own.

If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties, meet expected deadlines or conduct our research and development activities, including clinical trials, in accordance with regulatory requirements or our stated study plans and protocols, we will not be able to complete, or may be delayed in completing, the preclinical studies and clinical trials required to support future BLA submissions and approval of our product candidates.

We rely and intend to rely on third parties to produce preclinical, clinical and commercial supplies of our product candidates.

Other than some internal capacity to support preclinical activities, we do not have, nor do we plan to acquire, the infrastructure or capability internally to manufacture our preclinical and clinical quantities of our product candidates, and we lack the internal resources and capability to manufacture any of our product candidates on a clinical or commercial scale. Reliance on CDMOs and CROs entails risks to which we would not be subject if we manufactured the product candidates ourselves, including:

Any of these events could lead to clinical trial delays or failure to obtain regulatory approval, or impact our ability to successfully commercialize future products. Some of these events could be the basis for FDA action, including injunction, recall, seizure or total or partial suspension of production.

Additionally, each CDMO may require licenses to manufacture our product candidates or components thereof if the applicable manufacturing processes are not owned by the CDMO or in the public domain, and we may be unable to transfer or sublicense the intellectual property rights we may have with respect to such activities. These factors could cause the delay of clinical development, regulatory submissions, required approvals or commercialization of our product candidates, cause us to incur higher costs and prevent us from commercializing our products successfully.

We ~~currently rely~~previously relied on a single CDMO for process development and scale-up of efzofitimod, including the manufacture of bulk drug substance for our projected needs for initial clinical trials. We have ~~recently~~ entered into an agreement with another CDMO for the transfer of the process, scale-up and manufacturing of bulk drug substance for future clinical trials. Subject to the satisfactory completion of process validation and other requirements, we may contract with this CDMO for larger scale commercial manufacturing. We currently rely on a single CDMO for process development and scale-up of ATYR2810. We do not have long-term contracts with our CDMOs, and our CDMOs may terminate their agreements with us for a variety of reasons including technical issues or our material breach of our obligations under the applicable agreement. Furthermore, our CDMOs may reallocate resources away from the production of our product candidates if we delay manufacturing under certain circumstances, and the manufacturing facilities in which our product candidates are made could be adversely affected by earthquakes and other natural disasters, labor shortages, power failures, labor shortages, economic slowdowns, rising interest rates, inflation and monetary supply shifts, evolving geopolitical developments, such as the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~in Ukraine,~~ and numerous other factors. If our CDMOs fail to meet contractual requirements, and we are unable to secure one or more replacement CDMOs capable of production at a substantially equivalent cost, our clinical development activities may be delayed, or we could lose potential revenue. Manufacturing biologic drugs is complicated and tightly regulated by the FDA and comparable regulatory authorities around the world, and although alternative CDMOs with the necessary manufacturing and regulatory expertise and facilities exist, it could be expensive and take a significant amount of time to arrange for alternative CDMOs, transfer manufacturing procedures to these alternative CDMOs, and demonstrate comparability of material produced by such new CDMOs. New CDMOs of any product would be required to comply with applicable regulatory requirements. These CDMOs may not be able to manufacture our product candidates at costs, or in quantities, or in a timely manner necessary to complete the clinical development of our product candidates or make commercially successful products.

We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct, supervise and monitor our clinical trials, and if these third parties perform in an unsatisfactory manner, it may harm our business.

We have relied, and expect to continue to rely, on third-party CROs, clinical investigators and clinical trial sites to ensure our clinical trials are conducted properly and on time. While we have and will continue to enter into agreements governing their activities, we will have limited influence over their actual performance. We will control only certain aspects of our CROs’ activities. Nevertheless, we will be responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal and regulatory requirements, and scientific standards, and our reliance on the CROs does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities.

We and our investigators and CROs are required to comply with GCPs for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that the data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of clinical trial participants are protected. The FDA enforces GCPs through periodic inspections of study sponsors, principal investigators and clinical trial sites. If we or our investigators and CROs fail to comply with applicable GCPs, the clinical data generated in our future clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA may require us to perform additional unanticipated clinical trials before approving any marketing applications. Upon inspection, the FDA may determine that our clinical trials did not comply with GCPs. In addition, our future clinical trials will require a sufficient number of test subjects to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of our product candidates. Accordingly, if our investigators and CROs fail to comply with these regulations or fail to recruit a sufficient number of patients, we may be required to repeat such clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

Our investigators and CROs are not our employees, and we are therefore unable to directly monitor whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our clinical and preclinical programs. They may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other drug development activities that could harm our competitive position. If our investigators or CROs do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or obligations, fail to meet expected deadlines, or if the quality or accuracy of the clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our clinical protocols or regulatory requirements, or for any other reasons, our clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated, and we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize our product candidates. For example, we are currently in the process of transitioning CROs for our ongoing EFZO-FIT™ study. As a result, our financial results ~~would~~could be harmed, our costs could increase, our ability to generate revenues could be delayed and the commercial prospects for our product candidates will be adversely affected.

We are in the process of transitioning our CRO to support our ongoing EFZO-FIT™ study. Although we are carefully managing the transition of responsibilities, delays in the transition could occur or the transition could not be successful, which could compromise our ability to meet our desired development timelines, cause the transition to become more costly, and divert management’s time and attention, all of which could harm our business, financial condition and prospects.

We are currently in the process of transitioning our CRO to support our ongoing EFZO-FIT™ study. We expect the transition to be completed in the fourth quarter of 2022. Switching CROs involves additional cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO commences work. Although we are carefully managing the transition of responsibilities, delays in the transition could occur or the transition could not be successful, which could compromise our ability to meet our desired development timelines, cause the transition to become more costly, and divert management’s time and attention, all of which could harm our business, financial condition and prospects. In addition, forces beyond our control, including the impacts of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and other geopolitical and macroeconomic conditions, could disrupt the transition, ultimately impacting the new CRO’s ability to timely and adequately support the EFZO-FIT™ study.

Our reliance on third parties requires us to share our trade secrets, which increases the possibility that a competitor will discover them or that our trade secrets will be misappropriated or disclosed.

We rely on third parties to manufacture our product candidates, and we collaborate with both industry and various academic institutions in the development of our discovery engine for therapeutic applications based on tRNA synthetase and NRP2 biology. In connection with these activities, we are required, at times, to share trade secrets with them. We seek to protect our proprietary technology in part by entering into confidentiality agreements and, if applicable, material transfer agreements, collaborative research agreements, consulting agreements or other similar agreements with our collaborators, advisors, employees and consultants prior to beginning research or disclosing proprietary information. These agreements typically limit the rights of the third parties to use or disclose our confidential information, such as trade secrets. Despite the contractual provisions employed when working with third parties, the need to share trade secrets and other confidential information increases the risk that such trade secrets become known by our competitors, are inadvertently incorporated into the technology of others, or are disclosed or used in violation of these agreements. Given that our proprietary position is based, in part, on our know-how and trade secrets, a competitor’s discovery of our trade secrets or other

unauthorized use or disclosure would impair our competitive position and may have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, these agreements typically restrict the ability of our collaborators, advisors, employees and consultants to publish data potentially relating to our trade secrets. Our academic collaborators typically have rights to publish data, provided that we are notified in advance and may delay publication for a specified time in order to secure intellectual property rights to which we are entitled arising from the collaboration. In other cases, publication rights are controlled exclusively by us, although in some cases we may share these rights with other parties. We also conduct joint research and development programs that may require us to share trade secrets under the terms of our research and development partnerships or similar agreements. Despite our efforts to protect our trade secrets, our competitors may discover our trade secrets, either through breach of these agreements, independent development or publication of information including our trade secrets in cases where we do not have proprietary or otherwise protected rights at the time of publication. A competitor’s discovery of our trade secrets would impair our competitive position and have an adverse impact on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

If we are unable to obtain, maintain or protect intellectual property rights related to our product candidates, or if the scope of such intellectual property protection is not sufficiently broad, we may not be able to compete effectively in our markets.

We rely upon a combination of patents, trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect the intellectual property related to our technologies and product candidates. Our success depends in large part on our and our licensors’ abilities to obtain and maintain patent and other intellectual property protection in the United States and in other countries for our proprietary technology and product candidates.

We have sought to protect our proprietary position by filing patent applications in the United States and abroad related to our novel technologies and product candidates that are important to our business. This process is expensive and time consuming, and we may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development output before it is too late to obtain patent protection.

The patentability of inventions, and the validity, enforceability and scope of patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical fields involves complex legal and scientific questions and can be uncertain. As a result, patent applications that we own or in-license may not issue as patents with claims that cover our product candidates, or at all, in the United States or in foreign countries for many reasons. For example, there is no assurance that we were the first to invent or the first to file patent applications in respect of the inventions claimed in our patent applications or that our patent applications claim patentable subject matter. We may also be unaware of potentially relevant prior art relating to our patents and patent applications, and this prior art, if any, may be used by third parties as grounds to seek to invalidate a patent or to prevent a patent from issuing from a pending patent application. Even if patents do successfully issue and even if such patents disclose aspects of our product candidates, third parties may challenge their validity, enforceability or scope, which may result in such patents being narrowed or invalidated. Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, our patents and patent applications may not adequately protect our intellectual property, provide exclusivity for our product candidates or prevent others from designing around our claims. If the breadth or strength of protection provided by the patents and patent applications we hold, license or pursue with respect to our product candidates is threatened, it could threaten our ability to commercialize our product candidates. Further, if we encounter delays in our clinical trials, the period of time during which we could market any of our product candidates under patent protection, if approved, would be reduced. Since patent applications in the United States and most other countries are confidential for a period of time after filing, we cannot be certain that we were the first to file any patent application related to our product candidates. Changes to the patent laws in the United States and other jurisdictions could also diminish the value of our patents and patent applications or narrow the scope of our patent protection. Any of these outcomes could impair our ability to prevent competition from third parties, which may have an adverse effect on our business.

If the patent applications we own or have in-licensed that relate to our programs or product candidates do not issue as patents, if their breadth or strength of protection is threatened, or if they fail to provide exclusivity for our product candidates, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop product candidates, and threaten our ability to commercialize future products. We cannot offer any assurances about which, if any, patents will issue, the breadth of any such patents or whether any issued patents will be found invalid and unenforceable or will be threatened by third parties. Any successful opposition to these patents or any other patents owned by or licensed to us could deprive us of rights necessary for the successful commercialization of any product candidates that we may develop. In addition, patents have a limited term. In the United States, the natural expiration of a patent is generally 20 years after it is filed. Although various extensions may be available, the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited. Even if a patent does issue for any of our pending patent applications, possible delays in regulatory approvals could mean that the period of time during which we could market a product candidate under patent protection could be reduced from what we generally would expect. Since patent applications in the United States and most other countries are confidential for a period of time after filing, and some remain so until issued, we cannot be certain that we were the first to file any patent application related to a product candidate. Furthermore, if third

parties have filed such patent applications, an interference proceeding in the United States can be initiated by a third party to determine who was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the patent claims of our applications. Even if patents covering aspects of our product candidates are obtained, once the patent life has expired for a product, we may be open to competition from generic medications.

In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable or that we elect not to patent, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce and any other elements of our product candidate discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information or technology that is not covered by patents. However, trade secrets can be difficult to protect. We seek to protect our proprietary technology and processes, in part, by entering into confidentiality agreements with our employees, consultants, scientific advisors and contractors. We also seek to preserve the integrity and confidentiality of our data and trade secrets by maintaining physical security of our premises and physical and electronic security of our information technology systems, but it is possible that these security measures could be breached. Although we expect all of our employees and consultants to assign their inventions to us, and all of our employees, consultants, advisors and any third parties who have access to our proprietary know-how, information or technology to enter into confidentiality agreements, we cannot provide any assurances that all such agreements have been duly executed or that our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information will not be disclosed or that competitors will not otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or independently develop substantially equivalent information and techniques. For example, any of these parties may breach the agreements and disclose our proprietary information, including our trade secrets, and we may not be able to obtain adequate remedies for such breaches. Misappropriation or unauthorized disclosure of our trade secrets could impair our competitive position and may have a material adverse effect on our business. Additionally, if the steps we take to maintain the confidentiality of our trade secrets are inadequate, we may have insufficient recourse against third parties for misappropriating our proprietary information and processes. In addition, others may independently discover our trade secrets and proprietary information. For example, the FDA, as part of its Transparency Initiative, is currently considering whether to make additional information publicly available on a routine basis, including

information that we may consider to be trade secrets or other proprietary information, and it is not clear at the present time how the FDA’s disclosure policies may change in the future, if at all.

If due to the effects on our operations of general political and economic conditions, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the invasion of Ukraine by Russia, labor shortages, economic slowdowns, recessions or market corrections, inflation and monetary supply shifts, rising interest rates and tightening of credit markets resulting from the pandemic, the conflict or another cause, we are unable to generate new animal, or in vitro data, in time to support new, or updated patent application filings, or prior to patent conversion deadlines, it could materially impact the enforceability or scope of those patent filings.

If we are unable to prevent material disclosure of the non-patented intellectual property related to our technologies to third parties, and there is no guarantee that we will have any such enforceable trade secret protection, we may not be able to establish or maintain a competitive advantage in our market, which could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Further, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the United States. As a result, we may encounter significant problems in preventing third parties from practicing our inventions in countries outside the United States, or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions.

Claims that our product candidates or the manufacture, sale or use of our future products infringe the patent or other intellectual property rights of third parties could result in costly litigation or could require substantial time and money to resolve, even if litigation is avoided.

Our commercial success depends in part on our avoiding infringement of the patents and proprietary rights of third parties. There is a substantial amount of litigation, both within and outside the United States, involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, including patent infringement lawsuits, interferences, oppositions and inter partes reexamination proceedings before the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and corresponding foreign patent offices. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields in which we are pursuing development candidates. As the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, the risk increases that our product candidates may be subject to claims of infringement of the patent rights of third parties.

Third parties may assert that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. There may be third-party patents or patent applications with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our product candidates. Because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may infringe. In addition, third parties may obtain patents in the future and claim that use of our technologies infringes upon these patents. If any third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover the manufacturing process of any of our product candidates, any molecules formed during the manufacturing process or any final product itself, the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to commercialize such product candidate unless we obtained a license under the applicable patents, or until such patents expire.

Similarly, if any third-party patents are held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover aspects of our formulations, processes for manufacture or methods of use, the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to develop and commercialize the applicable product candidate unless we obtain a license or until such patent expires. In either case, such a license may not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all.

Parties making claims against us may obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, pay royalties, redesign our infringing products or obtain one or more licenses from third parties, which may not be able to be obtained on reasonable commercial terms or at all, or require substantial time and monetary expenditure.

Patent terms may be inadequate to protect our competitive position on our product candidates for an adequate amount of time.

Patents have a limited lifespan. In the United States, if all maintenance fees are timely paid, the natural expiration of a patent is generally 20 years from its earliest U.S. non-provisional filing date. Various extensions may be available, but the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited. Even if patents covering our product candidates are obtained, once the patent life has expired, we may be open to competition from competitive products, including generics or biosimilars. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. As a result, our owned and licensed patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours.

We may not be successful in obtaining or maintaining necessary rights to our therapeutic product candidates and processes for our development pipeline through acquisitions and in-licenses.

We believe that we have rights to intellectual property, through licenses from third parties and under patents that we own, that is necessary or useful to develop our product candidates. Because our programs may involve additional product candidates that may require the use of proprietary rights held by third parties, the growth of our business will likely depend in part on our ability to acquire, in-license or use these proprietary rights. In addition, our product candidates may require specific formulations to work effectively and efficiently and these rights may be held by others. We may be unable to acquire or in-license any compositions, methods of use, processes or other third-party intellectual property rights from third parties that we identify on reasonable commercial terms or at all. The licensing and acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive area, and a number of more established companies are also pursuing strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider attractive. These established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their size, cash resources and greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities.

We sometimes collaborate with U.S. and foreign academic institutions to accelerate our preclinical research or development under written agreements with these institutions. These institutions may provide us with an option to negotiate a license to the institution’s rights in technology resulting from the collaboration. Regardless of any such right of first negotiation for intellectual property, we may be unable to negotiate a license within the specified time frame or under terms that are acceptable to us. If we are unable to do so, the institution may offer the intellectual property rights to other parties, potentially blocking our ability to pursue our program.

In addition, companies that perceive us to be a competitor may be unwilling to assign or license rights to us. We also may be unable to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights on terms that would allow us to make an appropriate return on our investment. If we are unable to successfully obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property rights, our business, financial condition and prospects for growth could suffer.

If we fail to comply with our obligations in the agreements under which we license intellectual property rights from third parties or otherwise experience disruptions to our business relationships with our licensors, we could lose license rights that are important to our business.

We are a party to a number of intellectual property license agreements that are important to our business and expect to enter into additional license agreements in the future. Our existing license agreements impose, and we expect that future license agreements will impose, various diligence, milestone payment, royalty and other obligations on us. If we fail to comply with our obligations under these agreements, or we are subject to a bankruptcy, the licensor may have the right to terminate the license, in which event we would not be able to market products covered by the license.

We may need to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates, and we have done so from time to time. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses at a reasonable cost or on reasonable commercial terms, if at all. In that event, we may be required to expend significant time and resources to develop or license replacement technology. If we are unable to do so, we may be unable to develop or commercialize the affected product candidates, which could harm our business significantly. We cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents do not exist which might be enforced against our current product

candidates or future products, resulting in either an injunction prohibiting our sales, or, with respect to our sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties or other forms of compensation to third parties.

In some cases, patent prosecution of our licensed technology is controlled by the licensor. If our licensors fail to obtain and maintain patent or other protection for the proprietary intellectual property we license from them, we could lose our rights to the intellectual property or our exclusivity with respect to those rights, and our competitors could market competing products using such intellectual property. In certain cases, we may control the prosecution of patents resulting from licensed technology. In the event we breach any of our obligations related to such prosecution, we may incur significant liability to our licensors. Licensing of intellectual property is of critical importance to our business and involves complex legal, business and scientific issues and is complicated by the rapid pace of scientific discovery in our industry. Disputes may arise regarding intellectual property subject to a license agreement, including:

If disputes over intellectual property that we have licensed prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing arrangements on acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates.

We may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or the patents of our licensors, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe or otherwise violate our patents, the patents of our licensors or our other intellectual property rights. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time-consuming. Any claims that we assert against perceived infringers could also provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their intellectual property rights. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours or our licensors is not valid, is unenforceable or is not infringed, or may refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing.

Interference or derivation proceedings provoked by third parties or brought by us may be necessary to determine the priority of inventions or other matters of inventorship with respect to our patents or patent applications or those of our licensors. We may also become involved in other proceedings, such as re-examination or opposition proceedings, before the USPTO or its foreign counterparts relating to our intellectual property or the intellectual property rights of others. An unfavorable outcome in any such proceedings could require us to cease using the related technology or to attempt to license rights to it from the prevailing party, or could cause us to lose valuable intellectual property rights. Our business could be harmed if the prevailing party does not offer us a license on commercially reasonable terms, if any license is offered at all. Our defense of litigation or interference proceedings may fail and, even if successful, may result in substantial costs and distract our management and other employees. We may not be able to prevent, alone or with our licensors, misappropriation of our intellectual property rights, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect those rights as fully as in the United States. In addition, the uncertainties associated with litigation could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our clinical trials, continue our research programs, license necessary technology from third parties, or enter into development partnerships that would help us bring our product candidates to market. We may also become involved in disputes with others regarding the ownership of intellectual property rights. For example, we jointly develop intellectual property with certain parties, and disagreements may therefore arise as to the ownership of the intellectual property developed pursuant to these relationships. If we are unable to resolve these disputes, we could lose valuable intellectual property rights.

Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a material adverse effect on the price of our common stock.

We may be subject to claims that our employees, consultants or independent contractors have wrongfully used or disclosed confidential information of third parties or that our employees have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of their former employers.

We employ individuals who were previously employed at universities or other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that our employees, consultants and independent contractors do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants or independent contractors have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of any of our employee’s former employer or other third parties. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel, which could adversely impact our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

We may be subject to claims challenging the inventorship or ownership of our patents and other intellectual property.

We may be subject to claims that former employees, collaborators or other third parties have an ownership interest in our patents or other intellectual property. For example, we may have inventorship disputes arise from conflicting obligations of consultants or others who are involved in developing our product candidates. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these and other claims challenging inventorship or ownership, or we may enter into agreements to clarify the scope of our rights in such intellectual property. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, valuable intellectual property. Such an outcome could have a material adverse effect on our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees and various other governmental fees on patents or applications will be due to be paid to the USPTO and various governmental patent agencies outside of the United States in several stages over the lifetime of the patents or applications. We have systems in place to remind us to pay these fees, and we employ an outside firm and rely on our outside counsel to pay these fees due to non-U.S. patent agencies. The USPTO and various non-U.S. governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process. We employ law firms and other professionals to help us comply, and in many cases, an inadvertent lapse can be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules. However, there are situations in which non-compliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, our competitors might be able to enter the market and this circumstance would have a material adverse effect on our business.

Issued patents covering our product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged in court.

If we or one of our licensors initiated legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent covering one of our product candidates, the defendant could counterclaim that the patent covering our product candidate is invalid or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution. Third parties may also raise similar claims before administrative bodies in the United States or abroad, even outside the context of litigation. Such mechanisms include re-examination, post grant review, and equivalent proceedings in foreign jurisdictions (e.g., opposition proceedings). Such proceedings could result in revocation or amendment to our patents in such a way that they no longer cover our product candidates. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. With respect to the validity question, for example, we cannot be certain that there is no invalidating prior art, of which we and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on our product candidates. Such a loss of patent protection would have a material adverse effect on our business.

Changes in patent law could diminish the value of patents in general, thereby impairing our ability to protect our products.

As is the case with many other biotechnology companies, our success is heavily dependent on intellectual property, particularly patents. Obtaining and enforcing patents in the biotechnology industry involve both technological and legal complexity, and therefore obtaining, maintaining and enforcing biotechnology patents is costly, time-consuming and inherently uncertain. In addition, recent legislative and judicial developments in the United States and elsewhere have in some cases removed the protection afforded to patent owners, made patents more difficult to obtain, or increased the uncertainty regarding the ability to obtain, maintain and enforce patents.

For example, Congress has recently passed, and the United States is currently implementing, wide-ranging patent reform legislation, and may pass further patent reform legislation in the future. Recent U.S. Supreme Court rulings have narrowed the scope of patent protection available in certain circumstances and weakened the rights of patent owners in certain situations. For example, in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court held that certain claims to naturally occurring substances are not patentable. Although we do not believe that any of the patents owned or licensed by us will be found invalid based on this decision, we cannot predict how future decisions by the courts, Congress, or the USPTO may impact the value of our patents. In addition to increasing uncertainty with regard to our ability to obtain patents in the future, this combination of events has created uncertainty with respect to the value of patents generally, once obtained. Depending on decisions and actions by Congress, the federal courts, the USPTO and their respective foreign counterparts, the laws and regulations governing patents could change in unpredictable ways that would weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to maintain and enforce our existing patents and patents that we might obtain in the future.

Patent reform legislation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the validity or defense of our issued patents.

On September 16, 2011, the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (the Leahy-Smith Act) was signed into law. The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to U.S. patent law, including provisions that affect the way patent applications will be prosecuted and may also affect patent litigation. The USPTO is developing regulations and procedures to govern administration of the Leahy-Smith Act, and many of the substantive changes to patent law associated with the Leahy-Smith Act, and in particular, the first to file provisions, were enacted March 16, 2013. Although it is not clear what, if any, impact the Leahy-Smith Act will have on the operation of our business, the Leahy-Smith Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the United States can be less extensive than those in the United States. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the United States. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the United States, or from selling or importing products made using our inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection, but enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States. These products may compete with our products and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biotechnology products, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

We may use our financial and human resources to pursue a particular business strategy, research program or product candidate and fail to capitalize on strategies, programs or product candidates that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited resources, we may forego or delay pursuit of certain strategic opportunities or opportunities with certain programs, product candidates or indications that later prove to have greater commercial potential. We may focus on or pursue one indication over another potential indication and such development efforts may not be successful, which would cause us to delay the clinical development and approval of efzofitimod, ATYR2810 and other product candidates. In addition, our decisions as to which of our discovery programs to advance into preclinical and clinical development could preclude us from advancing others. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. For example, based on analysis from independent consultants that we have engaged during 2022, we currently estimate that there is a multi-billion dollar market opportunity in interstitial lung diseases, including pulmonary sarcoidosis. Depending on the accuracy of this estimate, we may not be most efficiently allocating resources toward the advancement of efzofitimod versus the advancement of other development efforts. In addition, we may elect to pursue a research, clinical or commercial strategy that ultimately does not yield the results that we desire. Our spending on current and future research and development programs for product candidates may not result in any commercially viable products. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through strategic collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have

been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to such product candidate, or we may allocate internal resources to a product candidate in a therapeutic area or market in which it would have been more advantageous to enter into a partnering arrangement. Any failure to allocate resources or capitalize on strategies in a successful manner will have an adverse impact on our business.

Our business could continue to be adversely affected by the effects of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Our business has been adversely affected by the effects of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and could continue to be adversely affected in the future. For example, many of our employees began telecommuting during the onset of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic as states and municipalities announced aggressive actions to reduce the spread of the disease such as “shelter in place” orders, and some employees continue to do so, which has impacted certain of our operations and may continue to do so over the long term. We may experience further limitations on employee resources in the future, including because of sickness of employees or their families. The effects of government actions and our own policies and those of third parties to reduce the spread of COVID-19 have negatively impacted productivity and slowed down or delayed our ongoing and future clinical trials, preclinical studies and research and development activities, and may cause disruptions to our supply chain. In the event that government authorities were to again implement restrictions, including due to the emergence of new variants of COVID-19, our employees who currently are not telecommuting may no longer be able to access our facilities, and our operations may be further limited or curtailed.

During the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, we may experience ongoing disruptions that could severely impact our business, preclinical studies and clinical trials, including:

These and other disruptions in our operations and the global economy including labor shortages, economic slowdowns, recessions, inflation and monetary supply shifts, rising interest rates and tightening of credit markets caused by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict ~~in Ukraine~~ or otherwise could negatively impact our business, operating results and financial condition.

Our completed Phase 1b/2a clinical trial in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis was negatively affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, many clinical trial sites in this clinical trial temporarily suspended dosing of previously-enrolled patients and/or enrollment of new patients and some patients discontinued from the trial. While we completed this clinical trial, the availability of results from this clinical trial was delayed until September 2021.

Additionally, under the terms of the Kyorin Agreement, we rely on Kyorin to fund all research, development, regulatory, marketing and commercialization activities in Japan. If Kyorin’s operations are limited due to an outbreak of COVID-19 or another public health emergency in Japan or in other regions where Kyorin operates or relies on third party operations, the development of efzofitimod in Japan may be significantly delayed and adversely affected, which may in turn delay or limit our receipt of any additional payments under the Kyorin Agreement.

Further, we currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct some or all aspects of product manufacturing, protocol development, and research and preclinical and clinical testing with respect to our product candidates. While many materials on which we rely may be obtained by more than one supplier, port closures, travel bans and other restrictions resulting from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict ~~in Ukraine~~ or other adverse macroeconomic or geopolitical events may disrupt our supply chain or limit our ability to obtain sufficient materials to conduct our operations.

As a result of these events and uncertainties, we may need to obtain additional funding through a combination of equity offerings, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements, and potentially through debt financings, if available on acceptable terms or at all. We may be unable to raise additional funds on acceptable terms or at all. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and actions taken to slow its spread, as well as the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict ~~in Ukraine~~ and the evolving foreign policy landscape, the global credit and financial markets have experienced volatility and disruptions, including severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, inflation and uncertainty about economic stability. If the equity and credit markets deteriorate, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing

more difficult, more costly and more dilutive. The impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on capital markets may affect the availability, amount and type of financing available to us in the future. If we are unable to raise additional funds, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market our product candidates even if we would otherwise prefer to develop and market such product candidates ourselves.

COVID-19 and actions taken to reduce its spread continue to rapidly evolve, including the emergence of new variants and additional actions taken in response to their spread. The extent to which the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may impede the development of our product candidates, reduce the productivity of our employees, disrupt our supply chains, delay our clinical trials, reduce our access to capital or limit our business development activities, will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence.

Our future success depends on our ability to retain key employees, consultants and advisors and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

We are highly dependent on principal members of our executive team, the loss of whose services may adversely impact the achievement of our objectives. While we have entered into employment agreements with each of our executive officers, any of them could leave our employment at any time, as all of our employees are “at will” employees. Recruiting and retaining other qualified employees, consultants and advisors for our business, including scientific and technical personnel, will also be critical to our success.

There is currently an extreme shortage of skilled personnel in our industry, which is likely to continue. As a result, competition for skilled personnel is very intense and the turnover rate can be high. This competition has become exacerbated by the increase in employee resignations currently taking place throughout the United States as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which is commonly referred to as the “great resignation.” We may also experience employee turnover as a result of the ongoing “great resignation.” In response to competition, rising inflation rates and labor shortages, we may need to adjust employee cash compensation, which would affect our operating costs and our margins, or equity compensation, which would affect our outstanding share count and cause dilution to existing stockholders. We may not be able to attract and retain personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for individuals with similar skill sets. In addition, the available pool of skilled employees may be further reduced if immigration laws change in a manner that increases restrictions on immigration. Further, failure to succeed in preclinical studies or clinical trials may make it more challenging to recruit and retain qualified personnel. The inability to recruit or loss of the services of any executive, key employee, consultant or advisor may impede the progress of our research, development and commercialization objectives.

We may undertake internal restructuring activities in the future that could result in disruptions to our business or otherwise materially harm our results of operations or financial condition.

From time to time we may undertake internal restructuring activities as we continue to evaluate and attempt to optimize our cost and operating structure in light of developments in our business strategy and long-term operating plans. For example, we implemented a corporate restructuring and program prioritization plan in May 2018 that included a reduction in our workforce. Any such restructuring activities may result in write-offs or other restructuring charges. There can be no assurance that any restructuring activities that we have undertaken or undertake in the future will achieve the cost savings, operating efficiencies or other benefits that we may initially expect. Restructuring activities may also result in a loss of continuity, accumulated knowledge and inefficiency during transitional periods and thereafter. In addition, internal restructurings can require a significant amount of time and focus from management and other employees,

which may divert attention from commercial operations. If any internal restructuring activities we have undertaken or undertake in the future fail to achieve some or all of the expected benefits therefrom, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

We are subject to a variety of risks associated with international operations that could materially adversely affect our business.

We currently conduct research activities through Pangu BioPharma Limited, in collaboration with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Additionally, we have conducted clinical trials in the EU and in Australia and may conduct future clinical trials internationally. Our partner, Kyorin, conducted an efzofitimod Phase 1 clinical trial in healthy volunteers in Japan, and ~~plans to join~~has joined our EFZO-FIT™ study, a global Phase 3 clinical trial designed to enroll 264 subjects at multiple centers in ~~North America,~~United States, Europe and Japan. If any of our product candidates are approved for commercialization outside of the United States, we expect to either use our own sales organization or selectively enter into agreements with third parties to market our products on a worldwide basis or in more limited geographical regions, as with Kyorin and efzofitimod in Japan. We are, and we expect that we will continue to be, subject to a variety of risks related to international operations, including, but not limited to: different regulatory requirements for approval of drugs and biologics in foreign countries; reduced or uncertain protection for intellectual property; unexpected changes in tariffs, trade barriers and regulatory requirements; economic weakness, including labor shortages, economic slowdowns, recessions, inflation and monetary supply shifts, rising interest rates and tightening of credit markets, or political instability in particular foreign economies and markets, including as a result of the ~~conflict in Ukraine;~~ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict; compliance with tax, employment, immigration and labor laws for

employees living or traveling abroad; foreign currency fluctuations, which could result in reduced revenues, and other obligations incident to doing business in another country; and the global impacts of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Any failure to continue our international operations or to commercialize our product candidates outside of the United States may impair our ability to generate revenues and harm our business, prospects and results of operations.

Our employees, principal investigators, consultants and commercial partners may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements and insider trading.

We are exposed to the risk of fraud or other misconduct by our employees, principal investigators, consultants and commercial partners. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional failures to comply with the regulations of the FDA and non-U.S. regulators, provide accurate information to the FDA and non-U.S. regulators, comply with healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations in the United States and abroad, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, misconduct, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Such misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in significant regulatory sanctions and cause serious harm to our reputation. We have adopted a code of business conduct and ethics applicable to all of our employees, but it is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to comply with these laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions.

We face potential product liability, and, if successful claims are brought against us, we may incur substantial liability and costs. If the use of our product candidates harm patients, or is perceived to harm patients even when such harm is unrelated to our product candidates, our regulatory approvals could be revoked or otherwise negatively impacted and we could be subject to costly and damaging product liability claims.

The use of our product candidates in clinical trials and the sale of any products for which we obtain marketing approval exposes us to the risk of product liability claims. Product liability claims might be brought against us by patients, healthcare providers, pharmaceutical companies or others selling or otherwise coming into contact with our products. There is a risk that our product candidates may induce adverse events. If we cannot successfully defend against product liability claims, we could incur substantial liability and costs. In addition, regardless of merit or eventual outcome, product liability claims may result in:

We carry product liability insurance for our clinical trials covering $10.0 million per occurrence and up to $10.0 million in the aggregate, subject to certain deductibles and exclusions. Although we believe the amount of our insurance coverage is typical for companies similar to us in our industry, we may not have adequate insurance coverage or be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts to protect us against losses due to liability. If and when we obtain marketing approval for product candidates, we intend to expand our insurance coverage to include the sale of commercial products; however, we may be unable to obtain product liability insurance on commercially reasonable terms or in adequate amounts. On occasion, large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on drugs or medical treatments that had unanticipated adverse effects. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us could cause our stock price to decline and adversely affect our reputation and, if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could adversely affect our results of operations and business.

Patients with the diseases targeted by our product candidates are often already in severe and advanced stages of disease and may have both known and unknown significant pre-existing and potentially life-threatening health risks. During the course of treatment, patients may suffer adverse events, including death, for reasons that may be related to our product candidates. Such events could subject us to costly litigation, require us to pay substantial amounts of money to injured patients, delay, negatively impact or end our opportunity to receive or maintain regulatory approval to market our products, or require us to suspend or abandon our commercialization efforts.

Even in a circumstance in which we do not believe that an adverse event is related to our products, the investigation into the circumstance may be time-consuming or inconclusive. These investigations may interrupt our sales efforts, delay our regulatory approval process in other countries, or impact and limit the type of regulatory approvals our product candidates receive or maintain. As a result of these factors, a product liability claim, even if successfully defended, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

We are, or may become, subject to stringent and evolving U.S. and foreign laws, regulations, rules, policies, contractual obligations and other obligations related to data privacy and security. Our actual or perceived failure to comply with such obligations could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition including, a disruption of clinical trials or commercialization of products; regulatory investigations or actions; litigation; fines and penalties; reputational harm; loss of revenue or profits; and other adverse business consequences.

We collect, receive, store, process, use, generate, transfer, disclose, make accessible, protect and share (Process or Processing) personal information and other sensitive information, including information we or our third party partners (such as CROs and clinical trial sites) collect about patients and healthcare providers in connection with clinical trials necessary to operate our business.

Therefore, we are, or may become, subject to data privacy and security laws, regulations, rules, guidance, and industry standards as well as policies, contractual requirements and other obligations that apply to the Processing of personal data both by us and on our behalf (collectively, Data Protection Requirements). The number and scope of the Data Protection Requirements are changing, subject to differing applications and interpretations, and may be inconsistent between jurisdictions. New Data Protection Requirements may be proposed or enacted. Additionally, given the breadth and evolving nature of Data Protection Requirements, preparing for and complying with these requirements is rigorous, time-intensive and requires significant resources and a review of our technologies, systems and practices, as well as those of any third-party collaborators, service providers, contractors or consultants that Process personal data on our behalf. We may at times fail (or be perceived to have failed) to do so. Moreover, despite our efforts, our personnel or third parties upon whom we rely may fail to comply with such obligations, which could negatively impact our business operations and compliance posture. For example, any failure by a third-party processor, such as a CRO or clinical trial site, to comply with Data Protection Requirements could result in material adverse effects, including inability to or interruption in our ability to operate our business and proceedings against us by governmental entities or others.

Additionally, if we or the third parties upon which we rely fail, or are perceived to have failed, to address or comply with Data Protection Requirements, this could result in government enforcement actions against us that could include investigations, fines, penalties, audits and inspections, additional reporting requirements and/or oversight, temporary or permanent bans on all or some Processing of personal data, orders to destroy or not use personal data, and imprisonment of company officials. Further, individuals or other relevant stakeholders could bring a variety of claims against us for our actual or perceived failure to comply with the Data Protection Requirements. Any of these events could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, or financial condition, and could lead to a loss of actual or prospective customers, collaborators or partners; interrupt or stop clinical trials; result in an inability to Process personal data or to operate in certain jurisdictions; limit our ability to develop or commercialize our products; require us to revise or restructure our operations; or otherwise materially adversely affect our operations (each, a Material Adverse Impact). Additionally, given the breadth and evolving nature of Data Protection Requirements, preparing for and complying with these requirements is rigorous, time-intensive and requires significant resources and a review of our technologies, systems and practices, as well as those of any third-party collaborators, service providers, contractors or consultants that Process personal data on our behalf.

In the United States, federal, state and local governments have enacted numerous data privacy and security laws, including data breach notification laws, personal data privacy laws and consumer protection laws (e.g., Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act). For example, the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) requires businesses to provide specific disclosures in privacy notices and honor requests of California residents to exercise certain privacy rights. The CCPA provides for civil penalties of up to $7,500 per

violation and allows private litigants affected by certain data breaches to recover significant statutory damages. Although the CCPA exempts some data processed in the context of clinical trials, the CCPA may increase compliance costs and potential liability with respect to other personal data maintained about California residents. In addition, the California Privacy Rights Act of 2020 (CPRA), effective January 1, 2023, will expand the CCPA’s requirements and establish a regulatory agency to implement and enforce the law. Other states, such as Virginia, Colorado, Utah and Connecticut, have also passed comprehensive privacy laws, and similar laws are being considered in several other states. These developments may further complicate compliance efforts, and may increase legal risk and compliance costs for us and the third parties upon whom we rely. In addition, data privacy and security laws have been proposed at the federal, state and local levels in recent years, which could further complicate compliance efforts.

Additionally, our operations may be subject to various federal and state healthcare information privacy laws, including but not limited to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009 (HITECH), and their respective implementing regulations, which impose obligations on “covered entities,” including certain healthcare providers, health plans, and healthcare clearinghouses, as well as their respective “business associates” and covered subcontractors that create, receive, maintain or transmit individually identifiable health information for or on behalf of a covered entity, with respect to safeguarding the privacy, security and transmission of individually identifiable health information.

In addition, we may become subject to an increasing number of foreign privacy laws, particularly as we begin to sponsor clinical trials in foreign jurisdictions. For example, the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR) regulates the collection and use of personal data in the EU. The EU GDPR covers any business, regardless of its location, that provides goods or services to residents in the EU and, thus, could apply to our activities in EU member states. The EU GDPR imposes strict requirements on controllers and processors of personal data, including special protections for “sensitive information,” which includes health and genetic information of individuals residing in the EU. Failure to comply with the requirements of the EU GDPR may result in warning letters, litigation, orders banning the processing of personal data, mandatory audits and financial penalties, including fines of up to 4% of global revenues, or €20,000,000, whichever is greater; or private litigation related to processing of personal data brought by classes of data subjects or consumer protection organizations authorized at law to represent their interests.

Certain jurisdictions have enacted data localization laws and cross-border personal data transfer laws, which could make it more difficult to transfer information across jurisdictions (such as transferring or receiving personal data that originates in the EU or in other foreign jurisdictions). Existing mechanisms that facilitate cross-border personal data transfers may change or be invalidated. For example, absent appropriate safeguards or other circumstances, the EU GDPR generally restricts the transfer of personal data to countries outside of the European Economic Area (EEA) that the European Commission does not consider to provide an adequate level of data privacy and security, such as the United States. The European Commission released a set of “Standard Contractual Clauses” (SCCs) that are designed to be a valid mechanism to facilitate personal data transfers out of the EEA to these jurisdictions. Currently, these SCCs are a valid mechanism to transfer personal data outside of the EEA. Additionally, the SCCs impose additional compliance burdens, such as conducting transfer impact assessments to determine whether additional security measures are necessary to protect the at-issue personal data.

In addition, Switzerland and the United Kingdom similarly restrict personal data transfers outside of those jurisdictions to countries such as the United States that do not provide an adequate level of personal data protection, and certain countries outside Europe (e.g. Russia, China, Brazil) have also passed or are considering laws requiring local data residency or otherwise impeding the transfer of personal data across borders, any of which could increase the cost and complexity of doing business or require us not to conduct business in certain countries. If we cannot implement a valid compliance mechanism for cross-border data transfers, we may face increased exposure to regulatory actions, substantial fines, and injunctions against processing or transferring personal data from Europe or other foreign jurisdictions. The inability to import personal data to the United States could significantly and negatively impact our business operations, including by limiting our ability to conduct clinical trial activities abroad; limiting our ability to collaborate with parties that are subject to such cross-border data transfer or localization laws; or requiring us to increase our personal data processing capabilities and infrastructure in foreign jurisdictions at significant expense.

We may also be bound by contractual obligations related to data privacy and security, and our efforts to comply with such obligations may not be successful. For example, certain privacy laws, such as the EU GDPR and the CCPA, may require our customers to impose specific contractual restrictions on their service providers. We may publish privacy policies, marketing materials and other statements, such as compliance with certain certifications, regarding data privacy and security. If these policies, materials or statements are found to be deficient, lacking in transparency, deceptive, unfair, or misrepresentative of our practices, we may be subject to investigation, enforcement actions by regulators or other adverse consequences.

Unfavorable ~~global economic~~macroeconomic conditions could adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

Our results of operations could be adversely affected by general conditions in the global economy and in the global financial markets. For example, the global financial crisis caused volatility and disruptions in the capital and credit markets. In addition, due to

general political and economic conditions, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing Ukraine-Russia conflict, ~~in Ukraine,~~ the global credit and financial markets have recently experienced extreme volatility and disruptions, including diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, inflation, rising interest rates and uncertainty about economic stability. A severe or prolonged economic downturn, such as the global financial crisis, could result in a variety of risks to our business, including inability to raise additional capital when needed on acceptable terms, if at all. A weak or declining economy could also strain our CDMOs and CROs, possibly resulting in supply disruption. Any of the foregoing could harm our business and we cannot anticipate all of the ways in which the current economic climate and financial market conditions could adversely impact our business.

We or the third parties upon whom we depend may be adversely affected by earthquakes, droughts, floods, fires, hurricanes or other natural disasters and our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from a serious disaster.

We are located in San Diego, California and our manufacturing activities are conducted by CDMOs and our clinical trials are conducted at various locations in the United States and abroad. We conducted our Phase I clinical trial for efzofitimod in Australia and we have a subsidiary in Hong Kong. Some of these geographic locations have in the past experienced natural disasters, including severe earthquakes. Earthquakes, droughts, floods, fires, hurricanes, disease epidemics or other natural disasters could severely disrupt our operations, and have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. If a natural disaster, power outage or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our facilities, that damaged

critical infrastructure, such as the manufacturing facilities of our CDMOs and clinical sites utilized by our CROs, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. The disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place currently are limited and are unlikely to prove adequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the limited nature of our disaster recovery and business continuity plans, as well as limits on our insurance coverage, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

If we are unable to establish sales, marketing and distribution capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to market and sell our product candidates, we may be unable to generate any revenues.

We do not currently have any infrastructure for the sales, marketing and distribution of pharmaceutical products. In order to market our product candidates, if approved by the FDA or any other regulatory body, we must build our sales, marketing, distribution, managerial and other non-technical capabilities or make arrangements with third parties to perform these services. There are risks involved with both establishing our own sales and marketing capabilities and entering into arrangements with third parties to perform these services. For example, recruiting and training a sales force is expensive and time consuming and could delay any product launch. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel.

If we enter into arrangements or collaborations with third parties to perform sales, marketing and distribution services, our product revenues or the profitability of these product revenues to us are likely to be lower than if we were to market, sell or distribute any medicines that we develop ourselves. In addition, we may not be successful in entering into arrangements with third parties to sell and market our product candidates or may be unable to do so on terms that are favorable to us. We likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our medicines effectively. If we do not establish sales and marketing capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

We rely on third-party manufacturers to produce our product candidates, but we have not entered into agreements with any such manufacturers to support commercialization.

We have not yet secured manufacturing capabilities for commercial quantities of any of our product candidates. Although we intend to rely on third-party manufacturers for commercialization, we have not yet entered into a long-term commercial supply agreement to support full scale commercial production, and we or our CDMOs may be unable to process validation activities necessary to enter into commercial supply agreements or otherwise negotiate agreements with the manufacturers to support our commercialization activities at commercially reasonable terms.

We may run into technical or scientific issues related to development or manufacturing that we may be unable to resolve in a timely manner or with available funds. For example, we recently engaged an additional CDMO to manufacture efzofitimod bulk drug substance and will need to complete a technology transfer and validation process before the new CDMO will be able to produce additional bulk drug substance for our clinical trials or otherwise. The new CDMO has not previously manufactured efzofitimod bulk drug substance, which subjects us to heighted risks that it will experience delays in validating the manufacturing process. If the new CDMO experiences such delays, particularly delays in producing efzofitimod in compliance with cGMP regulations, we could be forced

to delay future clinical trials or the submission of regulatory approval applications to the FDA. In addition, due to the fact that all prior cGMP batches of efzofitimod, including those that we intend to use in the EFZO-FIT™ study, have been produced by our existing CDMO, we will be required to complete comparability studies prior to using efzofitimod produced at the new CDMO’s facilities in subsequent clinical trials or submitting regulatory approval applications to the FDA. If we are unable to demonstrate such comparability to the satisfaction of the FDA, it may result in delays to future clinical trials or a deficiency in future regulatory applications. If we or our CDMOs are unable to scale the manufacturing process to produce commercial quantities of our product candidates, or our CDMOs do not pass required regulatory pre-approval inspections, our commercialization efforts will be harmed.

In addition, any significant disruption in our relationships with our CDMOs could harm our business. There are a relatively small number of potential manufacturers for our product candidates, and such manufacturers may not be able to supply our drug products at the times we need them or on commercially reasonable terms. Any disruption to our relationship with our current CDMOs and any manufacturers that we contract with in the future will result in delays in our ability to complete the clinical development of, or to commercialize, our product candidates, and may require us to incur additional costs.

We face intense competition and rapid technological change and the possibility that our competitors may develop therapies that are more advanced or effective than ours, which may adversely affect our financial condition and our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates.

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are intensely competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. We have competitors both in the United States and internationally, including major multi-national pharmaceutical companies, biotechnology companies and universities and other research institutions. Although we believe we are the only company engaged in the discovery and development of therapeutics based on novel functions of tRNA synthetases and NRP2 biology, we are aware of other companies that could compete with our product candidates in their target therapeutic indications, such as our lead candidate, efzofitimod for the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis and other ILD.

Many of our competitors have substantially greater financial, technical and other resources, such as larger research and development staff and experienced marketing and manufacturing organizations. Competition may increase further as a result of advances in the commercial applicability of technologies and greater availability of capital for investment in these industries. Our competitors may succeed in developing, acquiring or licensing on an exclusive basis, products that are more effective, safer, more convenient or less costly than any product candidate that we may develop, or achieve earlier patent protection, regulatory approval, product commercialization and market penetration than us. Additionally, technologies developed by our competitors may render our potential product candidates uneconomical or obsolete, and we may not be successful in marketing our product candidates against competitors.

The commercial success of any current product candidate or future product candidates will depend upon the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community.

Even with the requisite approval from the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, the commercial success of our product candidates will depend in part on the medical community, patients, and third-party payors accepting our product candidates as medically useful, cost-effective, and safe. Any product that we bring to the market may not gain market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community. If these products do not achieve an adequate level of acceptance, we may not generate significant product revenue and may not become profitable.

Even if a potential product displays a favorable efficacy and safety profile in preclinical studies and clinical trials, market acceptance of the product will not be known until after it is launched. Our efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payors on the benefits of the product candidates may require significant resources and may never be successful. Such efforts to educate the marketplace may require more resources than are required by the conventional technologies marketed by our competitors, and our competitors may have substantially greater resources or brand recognition to effectively market their products. If our product candidates are approved but fail to achieve an adequate level of acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors, and others in the medical community, we will not be able to generate sufficient revenue to become or remain profitable.

The insurance coverage and reimbursement status of newly-approved products is uncertain. Failure to obtain or maintain adequate coverage and reimbursement for new or current products could limit our ability to market those products and decrease our ability to generate revenue.

The availability and extent of coverage and adequate reimbursement by third-party payors, including government health administration authorities, private health coverage insurers, managed care organizations and other third-party payors is essential for most patients to be able to afford expensive treatments. Sales of any of our product candidates that receive marketing approval will depend substantially, both in the United States and internationally, on the extent to which the costs of such product candidates will be covered and reimbursed by third-party payors. If reimbursement is not available, or is available only to limited levels, we may not be able to successfully commercialize our product candidates. Even if coverage is provided, the approved reimbursement amount may not be high enough to allow us to establish or maintain pricing sufficient to realize an adequate return on our investment

There is significant uncertainty related to the insurance coverage and reimbursement of newly approved products. In the United States, the principal decisions about reimbursement for new medicines are typically made by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), as CMS decides whether and to what extent a new medicine will be covered and reimbursed under Medicare. Private payors often follow CMS with respect to coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement policies. It is difficult to predict what CMS will decide with respect to reimbursement for fundamentally novel products such as ours, as there is no body of established practices and precedents for these new products. One third-party payor’s determination to provide coverage for a product candidate does not assure that other payors will also provide coverage for the product candidate. Further, no uniform policy for coverage and reimbursement exists in the United States, and coverage and reimbursement can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process is often time-consuming and costly. This process will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each third-party payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance. Reimbursement agencies in Europe may be more conservative than third-party payors in the United States. For example, a number of cancer drugs have been approved for reimbursement in the United States, but have not been approved for reimbursement in certain European countries. There may be significant delays in obtaining reimbursement for newly approved medicines, and our inability to promptly obtain coverage and profitable payment rates

from third-party payors for any approved medicines could have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Outside the United States, international sales are generally subject to extensive governmental price controls and other market regulations, and we believe the increasing emphasis on cost-containment initiatives in Europe, Canada, and other countries has and will continue to put pressure on the pricing and usage of our product candidates. In many countries, the prices of medical products are subject to varying price control mechanisms as part of national health systems. In general, the prices of medicines under such systems are substantially lower than in the United States. Other countries allow companies to fix their own prices for medicines, but monitor and control company profits. Additional foreign price controls or other changes in pricing regulation could restrict the amount that we are able to charge for our product candidates. Accordingly, in markets outside the United States, the reimbursement for our products may be reduced compared with the United States and may be insufficient to generate commercially reasonable revenues and profits. Net prices for medicines may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that currently restrict imports of medicines from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the United States.

Moreover, increasing efforts by governmental and third-party payors, in the United States and abroad, to cap or reduce healthcare costs may cause such organizations to limit both coverage and level of reimbursement for new products and, as a result, they may not cover or provide adequate payment for our product candidates. For example, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (collectively, the ACA) was passed in March 2010, and substantially changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers, and continues to significantly impact the U.S. pharmaceutical industry. There have been executive, judicial and congressional challenges to certain aspects of the ACA. While Congress has not passed comprehensive repeal legislation, it has enacted laws that modified certain provisions of the ACA such as removing penalties, starting January 1, 2019, for not complying with the ACA’s individual mandate to carry health insurance. On June 17, 2021 the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed a challenge on procedural grounds that argued the ACA is unconstitutional in its entirety because the “individual mandate” was repealed by Congress. ~~Thus, the ACA will remain in effect in its current form.~~ Further, prior to the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, on January 28, 2021, President Biden issued an executive order that initiated a special enrollment period for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the ACA marketplace, which began on February 15, 2021 and remained open through August 15, 2021. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the ACA. On August 16, 2022, President Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA) into law, which among other things, extends enhanced subsidies for individuals purchasing health insurance coverage in ACA marketplaces through plan year 2025. The IRA also eliminates the “donut hole” under the Medicare Part D program beginning in 2025 by significantly lowering the beneficiary maximum out-of-pocket cost through a newly established manufacturer discount program. It is possible that the ACA will be subject to judicial or Congressional challenges in the future. It is unclear how any such challenges and the healthcare reform measures of the Biden administration will impact the ACA and our business.

In addition, there has been heightened governmental scrutiny in the United States of pharmaceutical pricing practices in light of the rising cost of prescription drugs and biologics. Such scrutiny has resulted in several recent presidential executive orders, congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to product pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for products. For example, on July 24, 2020 and September 13, 2020, President Trump announced several executive orders related to prescription drug pricing that attempt to implement several of the Trump administration’s proposals. The FDA concurrently released a final rule and guidance in September 2020, implementing a portion of the importation executive order providing pathways for states to build and submit importation plans for drugs from Canada. Further, on November 20, 2020, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a new safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers. The implementation of this rule has been delayed until January 1, 2027. On November 20, 2020, CMS issued an interim final rule implementing President Trump’s Most Favored Nation (MFN) executive order, which would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered drugs to

the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries, effective January 1, 2021. As a result of litigation challenging the MFN model, on December 27, 2021, CMS published a final rule that rescinds the MFN model interim final rule. In July 2021, the Biden administration released an executive order, “Promoting Competition in the American Economy,” with multiple provisions aimed at prescription drugs. In response to Biden’s executive order, on September 9, 2021, ~~HHS~~the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) released a Comprehensive Plan for Addressing High Drug Prices that outlines principles for drug pricing reform and sets out a variety of potential legislative policies that Congress could pursue as well as potential administrative actions HHS can take to advance these principles. ~~No legislation or administrative actions~~Further, the IRA, among other things, (1) directs the HHS to negotiate the price of certain single-source drugs and biologics covered under Medicare and (2) imposes rebates under Medicare Part B and Medicare Part D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation. These provisions will take effect progressively starting in fiscal year 2023, although they may be subject to legal challenges. It is currently unclear how the IRA will be implemented but is likely to have ~~been finalized to implement these principles. In addition, Congress is considering additional health reform measures.~~a significant impact on the pharmaceutical industry. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of any of our product candidates, due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations and additional health reform measures. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription drugs and surgical procedures and other treatments, has become very intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the entry of new products. ~~In addition, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.~~

In addition, drug prices are under significant scrutiny in the markets in which our products may be sold. Drug pricing and other health care costs continues to be subject to intense political and societal pressures which we anticipate will continue and escalate on a global basis. If coverage and reimbursement is available only to limited levels, we may not be able to successfully commercialize our product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval. As a result, we may have difficulty raising capital and our results of operations may be adversely impacted.

Our business operations and current and future relationships with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors and customers may be subject, directly or indirectly, to federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws, false claims laws, transparency laws, health information privacy and security laws and other healthcare laws and regulations. If we are unable to comply, or have not fully complied, with such laws, we could face substantial penalties.

Although we do not currently have any products on the market, our current and future operations may be, directly or indirectly through our prescribers, customers and third-party payors, subject to various federal and state healthcare laws and regulations. The laws that may affect our ability to operate include:

If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any other governmental laws and regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant penalties, including civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, exclusion from government funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, or similar programs in other countries or jurisdictions, disgorgement, imprisonment, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits, additional reporting requirements and oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws and the delay, reduction, termination or restructuring of our operations.

The market price of our common stock historically has been highly volatile and is likely to continue to be volatile, and you could lose all or part of your investment.

The market price of our common stock has been volatile and could be subject to wide fluctuations in response to various factors, some of which are beyond our control. In addition to the factors discussed in this “Risk Factors” section and elsewhere in this Quarterly Report, these factors include:

In addition, companies trading in the stock market in general, and on the Nasdaq Capital Market and biotechnology companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations, and we have in the past experienced volatility that has been unrelated or disproportionate to our operating performance. From January 1, 2020 through ~~August~~November 8, 2022 the closing price of our common stock has ranged between $2.17 and $12.48 per share. Broad market and industry factors may negatively affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance.

Our executive officers, directors, 5% holders and their affiliates currently own a significant percentage of our stock and will be able to exert significant control over matters submitted to stockholders for approval.

As of ~~August~~November 8, 2022, based on the latest information available to us, our executive officers, directors, holders known by us to own 5% of our voting stock and their affiliates own approximately ~~35.9%~~35.5% of our voting stock. Therefore, our executive officers,

directors, holders known by us to own 5% of our voting stock and their affiliates will have the ability to influence us through their ownership positions and may be able to determine all matters requiring stockholder approval. For example, these stockholders, acting together, may be able to control elections of directors, amendments of our organizational documents, or approval of any merger, sale of assets, or other major corporate transaction. This may prevent or discourage unsolicited acquisition proposals or offers for our common stock that you may believe are in your best interest as one of our stockholders.

Future sales and issuances of equity securities could result in dilution to our stockholders, impose restrictions or limitations on our business and could cause our stock price to fall.

We will need additional capital in the future to continue our planned operations, and we may seek additional funding through a combination of equity offerings, debt, grant funding, collaborations, strategic partnerships and/or licensing arrangements.

In September 2021, we completed an underwritten follow-on public offering of 10,781,250 shares of our common stock, including the full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, at a price to the public of $8.00 per share. The total net proceeds from the offering were approximately $80.6 million, after deducting underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses payable by us.

In September 2020, we entered into the Purchase Agreement with Aspire Capital, which provides that, upon the terms and subject to the conditions and limitations set forth therein, Aspire Capital is committed to purchase up to an aggregate of $20.0 million of shares of our common stock at our request from time to time during the 30 month term of the Purchase Agreement. Concurrently with entering into the Purchase Agreement, we also entered into a registration rights agreement with Aspire Capital, in which we agreed to file one or more registration statements, as permissible and necessary to register under the Securities Act, for the resale of the shares of our common stock that have been and may be issued to Aspire Capital under the Purchase Agreement. During 2021, we sold an aggregate of 3,000,000 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $5.09 per share for net proceeds of $15.2 million under this Purchase Agreement. We may sell the remaining $4.8 million in the future under the Purchase Agreement. During the ~~three and six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, there were no issuances or sales under the Purchase Agreement.

In April 2022, we entered into an Open Market Sale AgreementSM with Jefferies implementing the ATM Offering Program, pursuant to which we may offer and sell, from time to time and at our option, up to an aggregate of $65.0 million of shares of our common stock through Jefferies, acting as sales agent. Jefferies is entitled to a fixed commission rate of up to 3.0% of the gross sales proceeds of shares sold under the ATM Offering Program. During the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022, we sold an aggregate of 69,251 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $2.80 per share for gross proceeds of approximately $0.2 million under the ATM Offering Program.

In March 2021, we entered into a Capital on DemandTM Sales Agreement with JonesTrading to implement the Prior ATM Offering Program, pursuant to which we were entitled to sell from time to time, at our option, up to an aggregate of $25.0 million of shares of our common stock through JonesTrading, as sales agent or principal. JonesTrading was entitled to a commission at a fixed rate of up to 3.0% of the gross proceeds. During 2021, we sold an aggregate of 986,267 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $4.75 per share for net proceeds of $4.4 million under the Prior ATM Offering Program. ~~For~~In April 2022, we terminated the ~~six months ended June 30,~~Prior ATM Offering Program. During 2022 and prior to the termination in April 2022, we sold an aggregate of 260,455 shares of common stock at a weighted-average price of $6.07 per share for net proceeds of approximately $1.5 million under the Prior ATM Offering Program. ~~No shares were sold during the three months ended June 30, 2022. In April 2022, we terminated the Prior ATM Offering Program.~~

These financing activities may have an adverse effect on our stockholders’ rights, the market price of our common stock and on our operations, and may require us to relinquish rights to some of our technologies, intellectual property or product candidates, issue additional equity or debt securities, or otherwise agree to terms unfavorable to us.

In addition, sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock by our existing stockholders in the public market or the perception that these sales might occur, could depress the market price of our common stock and could impair our ability to raise capital through the sale of additional equity securities. Any sales of securities by these stockholders could have a material adverse effect on the trading price of our common stock, even if there is no relationship between such sales and the performance of our business.

We have also registered or plan to register all common stock that we may issue under our employee benefits plans as well as shares of common stock underlying options to purchase shares of our common stock that were granted as inducement grants. As a result, once registered, these shares can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance, subject to restrictions under the securities laws. In addition, our directors and executive officers may establish programmed selling plans under Rule 10b5-1 of the Exchange Act for the purpose of effecting sales of our common stock. If any of these events cause a large number of our shares to be sold in the public market, the sales could reduce the trading price of our common stock and impede our ability to raise future capital.

Our ability to use our net operating losses to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

We have incurred substantial losses during our history, we do not expect to become profitable in the near future and we may never achieve profitability. Net operating loss carryforwards (NOLs) that expire unused will be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. Under current law, federal net operating losses incurred in tax years beginning after December 31, 2017, may be carried forward indefinitely, but the deductibility of such federal NOLs in tax years beginning after December 31, 2020, is limited to 80% of taxable income.

In addition, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (Code) a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” (as defined under Section 382 of the Code and applicable Treasury Regulations) is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change NOLs to offset post-change taxable income. We have experienced ownership changes in the past, and may experience future ownership changes, under Section 382 of the Code that could affect our ability to utilize our NOLs to offset our income. Furthermore, our ability to utilize NOLs of companies that we may acquire in the future may be subject to limitations. There is also a risk that due to regulatory changes, such as suspensions on the use of NOLs or other unforeseen reasons, portions of our existing NOLs could expire or otherwise be unavailable to reduce future income tax liabilities, including for state tax purposes. For these reasons, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of our NOLs, even if we attain profitability, which could potentially result in increased future tax liability to us and could adversely affect our operating results and financial condition.

We do not intend to pay dividends on our common stock, and therefore any returns will be limited to the value of our stock.

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our common stock. We anticipate that we will retain future earnings for the development, operation and expansion of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends for the foreseeable future. Any return to stockholders will therefore be limited to the appreciation of their stock.

In addition, future debt instruments may materially restrict our ability to pay dividends on our common stock. Any future determination related to dividend policy will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend upon, among other factors, our results of operations, financial condition, capital requirements, tax considerations, legal or contractual restrictions, business prospects, the requirements of current or then-existing debt instruments, general economic conditions and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws, as well as provisions of Delaware law, could make it more difficult for a third party to remove our current management, acquire us or increase the cost of acquiring us, even if doing so would benefit our stockholders.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, amended and restated bylaws and Delaware law contain provisions that may have the effect of delaying or preventing a change in control of us or changes in our management. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated bylaws include provisions that:

These provisions, alone or together, could delay or prevent hostile takeovers and changes in control or changes in our management.

In addition, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, which limits the ability of stockholders owning in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock to merge or combine with us.

Any provision of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or amended and restated bylaws or Delaware law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our common stock, and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common stock.

Our amended and restated bylaws provide that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware is the exclusive forum for certain disputes between us and our stockholders, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers or employees.

Our amended and restated bylaws provide that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the sole and exclusive forum for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, (ii) any action asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers or employees to our company or our stockholders, (iii) any action asserting a claim against our company arising pursuant to any provision of the Delaware General Corporation Law or our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or bylaws, or (iv) any action asserting a claim against our company governed by the internal affairs doctrine. This choice of forum provision does not apply to suits brought to enforce a duty or liability created by the Securities Act or the Exchange Act, or any other claim for which the federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction.

This choice of forum provision may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring certain claims in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or any of our directors, officers, other employees or stockholders, which may discourage lawsuits with respect to such claims, although our stockholders will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder. If a court were to find this choice of forum provision to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on the success of our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Our operations involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials. Our operations also produce hazardous waste products. We generally contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and wastes. We cannot eliminate the risk of contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from our use of hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials or other work-related injuries, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

If our information technology systems or data, or those maintained on our behalf, are or were compromised, or the security, confidentiality, integrity or availability of our information technology, software, services, networks, communications or data is compromised, limited or fails, this could result in a Material Adverse Impact.

In the ordinary course of our business, we ~~or any third-party~~and the third-parties upon which we rely may Process (as defined above) proprietary, confidential and sensitive information, including personal data (including key-coded data, health information and other special categories of personal data), intellectual property, trade secrets, and proprietary business information owned or controlled by ourselves or other third parties (collectively, Sensitive Information).

We utilize information technology systems and networks to process, transmit and store ~~electronic information~~Sensitive Information in connection with our business activities. We may also use third-party service providers and subprocessors to help us operate our business and engage in Processing on our behalf or otherwise share Sensitive Information with our partners or other third parties in conjunction with our business. If we, our service providers, partners or other relevant third parties have experienced or in the future experience any security incident(s) that result in any data loss; deletion or ~~destruction;~~destruction of Sensitive Information; unauthorized access ~~to;~~to Sensitive Information; loss, unauthorized acquisition, disclosure or exposure of Sensitive Information; or compromise related to the security, confidentiality, integrity or availability of our (or their) information technology, software, services, communications or data (including Sensitive

Information) (any, a security breach), it may result in a Material Adverse Impact (as defined above). For example, the loss of data from completed clinical trials for our product candidates could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs. Theft of our Sensitive Information could require substantial expenditures to remedy. If we or the third parties upon which we rely experience a security breach, we could suffer reputational harm or face litigation or adverse regulatory action, fines, other penalties, business interruption, and diversion of funds. As a result, we could experience Material Adverse Impacts.

~~Cyberattacks,~~Cyber-attacks, malicious internet-based activity, online and offline fraud, and other similar activities threaten the confidentiality, integrity and availability of our ~~sensitive information~~Sensitive Information and information technology systems, and those of the third parties upon which we rely. Such threats are prevalent, continue to rise, are increasingly difficult to detect and come from a variety of sources, including traditional computer “hackers,” threat actors, “hacktivists,” organized criminal threat actors, personnel (such as through theft or misuse), sophisticated nation states, and nation state supported actors. Some actors now engage and are expected to continue to engage in cyber-attacks, including without limitation nation state actors for geopolitical reasons and in conjunction with military conflicts and defense activities. During times of war and other major conflicts, we and the third parties upon which we rely may be vulnerable to a heightened risk of these attacks, including retaliatory cyber-attacks that could materially disrupt our systems and operations, supply chain, and ability to produce, sell and distribute our goods and services. We and the third parties upon which we rely may be subject to a variety of evolving threats, including but not limited to software bugs; malicious code (such as viruses and worms); denial-of-service attacks (such as credential stuffing); credential harvesting; advanced persistent threat intrusions; natural disasters; terrorism; war; telecommunication and electrical failures; ransomware attacks; phishing attacks; server malfunction; software or hardware failures; supply-chain attacks; loss of data or other computer assets; and other similar issues. Particularly, severe ransomware attacks ~~including those from organized criminal threat actors, nation-states and nation-state supported actors,~~ are becoming increasingly prevalent ~~and severe~~ and can lead to significant interruptions, delays, or outages in our operations, disruption of clinical trials, loss of data (including data related to clinical trials), and other Material Adverse Impacts. To alleviate the financial, operational and reputational impact of a ransomware attack, it may be preferable to make extortion payments, but we may be unwilling or unable to do so (including, for example, if applicable laws or regulations prohibit such payments). Similarly, supply chain attacks have increased in frequency and severity, and we cannot guarantee that third parties and infrastructure in our supply chain have not been compromised or that they do not contain exploitable defects or bugs that could result in a breach of or disruption to our platform, systems and networks or the systems and networks of third parties that support us and our services.

Additionally, ~~due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic~~remote work has become more common and ~~the competitive labor market, a portion of our workforce works remotely and that~~ has increased the risk to our information technology assets and ~~data. These threats pose a risk to the security~~data, as more of our ~~systems~~employees utilize network connections, computers and devices outside of our premises and networks, including working at home, while in transit and ~~the confidentiality, availability and integrity of our data.~~in public locations. Additionally, future or past business transactions could expose us to additional risks and vulnerabilities, as our systems could be negatively affected by vulnerabilities present in acquired or integrated entities’ systems and technologies.

While we have implemented security measures designed to protect against security breaches, there can be no assurance that we, or any third-party partner, will be successful in preventing ~~cyber-attacks~~a security breach or mitigating their effects. We may be unable to detect vulnerabilities in our information technology systems because such threats and techniques change frequently, are often sophisticated in nature, and may not be detected until after a security breach has occurred. Further, we may experience delays in developing and deploying remedial measures designed to address any such identified vulnerabilities. We may be required to expend significant resources, fundamentally change our business activities and practices, or modify our operations, including our clinical trial activities, or information technology in an effort to protect against security breaches and to mitigate, detect, and remediate actual and potential vulnerabilities. Applicable Data Protection Requirements (as defined above) may require us to implement specific security measures or use industry-standard or reasonable measures to protect against security breaches.

Furthermore, applicable Data Protection Requirements may require us to notify relevant stakeholders of security breaches. Such disclosures are costly, and the disclosures or the failure to comply with such requirements could lead to Material Adverse Impacts. There can be no assurance that any limitations or exclusions of liability in our contracts would be enforceable or adequate or would otherwise protect us from liabilities or damages if we fail to comply with Data Protection Requirements related to information security or security breaches.

Our contracts may not contain limitations of liability, and even where they do, there can be no assurance that limitations of liability in our contracts are sufficient to protect us from liabilities, damages, or claims related to our data privacy and security obligations. WeFurthermore, we cannot be sure that our insurance coverage, ~~if any,~~ will be adequate or otherwise protect us from or adequately mitigate liabilities or damages with respect to claims, costs, expenses, litigation, fines, penalties, business loss, data loss, regulatory actions or Material Adverse Impacts arising out of our Processing operations, privacy and security practices, or security breaches we may experience. The successful assertion of one or more large claims against us that exceeds our available insurance coverage, or results in changes to our insurance policies (including premium increases or the imposition of large excess or deductible or co-insurance requirements), could have a Material Adverse Impact.

We are subject to anti-corruption laws in the jurisdictions in which we operate.

We are subject to a number of anti-corruption laws, including the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended (FCPA), and various other anti-corruption laws. The FCPA generally prohibits companies and their intermediaries from making improper payments to foreign officials for the purpose of obtaining or keeping business and/or other benefits. Our business relies on approvals

and licenses from government and regulatory entities, and as a result, we are subject to certain elevated risks associated with interactions with these entities. Although we have adopted a code of business conduct and ethics that includes provisions governing the interactions of employees with government entities to mitigate these risks, there can be no assurance that this will be successful in preventing violations of anti-corruption laws. If we are not in compliance with anti-corruption laws and other laws governing the conduct of business with government entities (including local laws), we may be subject to criminal and civil penalties and other remedial measures, which could harm our reputation and have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. Any investigation of any actual or alleged violations of such laws could also harm our reputation or have an adverse impact on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

We have incurred and will continue to incur significant costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives.

As a public company, we have incurred and will continue to incur legal, accounting and other expenses. In addition, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and The Nasdaq Stock Market have imposed various requirements on public companies. In July 2010, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (the Dodd-Frank Act) was enacted. There are significant corporate governance and executive compensation related provisions in the Dodd-Frank Act that require the SEC to adopt additional rules and regulations in these areas such as “say on pay” and proxy access. Stockholder activism, the current political environment and the current high level of government intervention and regulatory reform may lead to substantial new regulations and disclosure obligations, which may lead to additional compliance costs and impact the manner in which we operate our business in ways we cannot currently anticipate. Our management and other personnel will need to devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, we expect these rules and regulations to make it more difficult and more expensive for us to maintain director and officer liability insurance and we have been required to incur substantial costs to maintain our current levels of such coverage.

If securities analysts do not publish research or reports about our business or if they publish negative evaluations of our stock, the price of our stock could decline.

The trading market for our common stock relies in part on the research and reports that industry or financial analysts publish about us or our business. If no or few analysts commence coverage or continue coverage of us, the trading price of our stock would likely decrease. If one or more of the analysts covering our business downgrade their evaluations of our stock, the price of our stock could decline. If one or more of these analysts cease to cover our stock, we could lose visibility in the market for our stock, which in turn could cause our stock price to decline.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against companies following a decline in the market price of their securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because pharmaceutical companies have experienced significant stock price volatility. If we face such litigation, it could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which could harm our business and cause our stock price to decline.

We have broad discretion in the use of our cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments and are exposed to risks related to the marketable securities we may purchase.

We have considerable discretion in the application of our existing cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments. We expect to use our existing cash to fund research and development activities and for working capital and general corporate purposes, including funding the costs of operating as a public company. In addition, pending their use, we may invest our existing cash in certain short-term investments, including but not limited to investment-grade, interest-bearing securities. Historically,

investment in these securities has been highly liquid and has experienced only very limited defaults. However, volatility in the financial markets in recent years has created additional uncertainty regarding the liquidity and safety of these investments. Additionally, we may use this cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and available-for-sale investments for purposes that do not yield a significant return or any return at all for our stockholders.


			Incorporated by Reference					Incorporated by Reference
Exhibit Number	Exhibit Title	Form	File No.	Exhibit	Filing Date	Exhibit Title	Form	File No.	Exhibit	Filing Date
3.1	Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	S-1/A	333-203272	3.2	May 1, 2015	Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	—			Filed herewith
3.2	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	June 28, 2019	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	June 28, 2019
3.3	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	10-Q	001-37378	3.3	May 12, 2020	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	10-Q	001-37378	3.3	May 12, 2020
3.4	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	May 4, 2021	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	May 4, 2021
3.5	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	April 29, 2022	Certificate of Amendment to Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Registrant	8-K	001-37378	3.1	April 29, 2022
3.6	Amended and Restated Bylaws of the Registrant	S-1/A	333-203272	3.4	April 27, 2015	Amended and Restated Bylaws of the Registrant	—			Filed herewith
3.7	Certificate of Designation of Preferences, Rights and Limitations of Class X Convertible Preferred Stock	8-K	001-37378	3.1	August 31, 2017
4.1	Specimen Common Stock Certificate	S-1/A	333-203272	4.1	April 27, 2015	Specimen Common Stock Certificate	S-1/A	333-203272	4.1	April 27, 2015
4.2	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on July 24, 2013	S-1	333-203272	4.4	April 6, 2015	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on July 24, 2013	S-1	333-203272	4.4	April 6, 2015
4.3	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on November 18, 2016	10-K	001-37378	4.5	March 16, 2017	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on November 18, 2016	10-K	001-37378	4.5	March 16, 2017
4.4	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on November 18, 2016	10-K	001-37378	4.6	March 16, 2017	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on November 18, 2016	10-K	001-37378	4.6	March 16, 2017
4.5	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on June 30, 2017	10-Q	001-37378	4.7	August 14, 2017	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on June 30, 2017	10-Q	001-37378	4.7	August 14, 2017
4.6	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on June 30, 2017	10-Q	001-37378	4.8	August 14, 2017	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on June 30, 2017	10-Q	001-37378	4.8	August 14, 2017
4.7	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on December 22, 2017	10-K	001-37378	4.8	March 20, 2018	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Silicon Valley Bank on December 22, 2017	10-K	001-37378	4.8	March 20, 2018
4.8	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on December 22, 2017	10-K	001-37378	4.9	March 20, 2018	Warrant to Purchase Stock issued to Solar Capital Ltd on December 22, 2017	10-K	001-37378	4.9	March 20, 2018
4.9	Registration Rights Agreement, by and between the Registrant and Aspire Capital Fund, LLC, dated September 11, 2020	8-K	001-37378	4.1	September 14, 2020	Registration Rights Agreement, by and between the Registrant and Aspire Capital Fund, LLC, dated September 11, 2020	8-K	001-37378	4.1	September 14, 2020
10.1*	aTyr Pharma, Inc. 2015 Stock Option and Incentive Plan, as amended	8-K	001-37378	10.1	April 29, 2022
10.2*	aTyr Pharma, Inc. 2015 Employee Stock Purchase Plan, as amended	8-K	001-37378	10.2	April 29, 2022
10.3*	aTyr Pharma, Inc. 2022 Inducement Plan	10-Q	001-37378	10.3	May 10, 2022
10.4*	Forms of Grant Notice and Stock Option Agreement under aTyr Pharma, Inc. 2022 Inducement Plan	10-Q	001-37378	10.4	May 10, 2022
31.1						Certification of Principal Executive Officer required by Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—			Filed herewith
31.2						Certification of Principal Financial Officer required by Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—			Filed herewith
32.1#						Certification of Principal Executive Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—			Filed herewith

* Indicates a management contract or compensatory plan, contract or arrangement.

# The information in Exhibits 32.1 and 32.2 shall not be deemed “filed” for purposes of Section 18 of the Exchange Act, or otherwise subject to the liabilities of that section, nor shall it be deemed incorporated by reference in any filing under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act (including this Quarterly Report), unless the Registrant specifically incorporates the foregoing information into those documents by reference.

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.


Delaware	20-3435077
(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)	(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)

3545 John Hopkins Court, Suite #250, San Diego, CA	92121
(Address of principal executive offices)	(Zip Code)


Title of each class	Trading Symbol(s)	Name of each exchange on which registered
Common Stock, par value $0.001 per share	LIFE	The Nasdaq Capital Market


	Page
PART I. FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Item 1. Financial Statements		3
Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets as of ~~June~~September 30, 2022 (unaudited) and December 31, 2021		3
Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations for the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (unaudited)		4
Condensed Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss for the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (unaudited)		5
Condensed Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity for the three and ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (unaudited)		6
Condensed Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the ~~six~~nine months ended ~~June~~September 30, 2022 and 2021 (unaudited)		78
Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements (unaudited)		89
Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations		1617
Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk		2425
Item 4. Controls and Procedures		2425
PART II. OTHER INFORMATION
Item 1. Legal Proceedings		2426
Item 1A. Risk Factors		2426
Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds		6063
Item 3. Defaults Upon Senior Securities		6063
Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures		6063
Item 5. Other Information		6063
Item 6. Exhibits		6063
SIGNATURES		6366


	Operating Lease
2022	$	536
2023		404
Less: Amount representing interest		(34	)
Present value of lease payments		906
Less: Current portion of operating lease liability		(906	)
Long-term operating lease liability, net of current portion	$	—


	Operating Lease
2022	$	270
2023		1,085
2024		1,675
2025		1,726
2026		1,777
2027 and thereafter		12,933
Less: Amount representing interest		(7,019	)
Present value of lease payments		12,447
Less: Current portion of operating lease liability		(657	)
Less: Tenant improvement allowance not yet received		(4,572	)
Long-term operating lease liability, net of current portion	$	7,218


Large accelerated filer	☐	Accelerated filer	☐

Non-accelerated filer	☒	Smaller reporting company	☒

		Emerging growth company	☐


		June 30, 2022
	Contractual Maturity	Gross Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses			Market Value
Available-for-sale investments:
Commercial paper	Within 1 year	$	26,864	$	—	$	(144	)	$	26,720
Corporate debt securities	1 to 2 years		45,082		—		(532	)		44,550
Municipal bonds	1 to 2 years		8,883		—		(83	)		8,800
		$	80,829	$	—	$	(759	)	$	80,070


	Financing Lease			Financing Lease
2022	$	49		$	52
2023		99			208
2024		99			208
2025		99			208
2026		97			223
Less: Amount representing interest		(75	)		(123	)
Present value of lease payments		368			776
Less: Current portion of operating lease liability		(70	)
Long-term operating lease liability, net of current portion	$	298
Less: Current portion of financing lease liability					(158	)
Long-term financing lease liability, net of current portion				$	618


10.5	Open Market Sale AgreementSM, dated April 22, 2022 by and between the Registrant and Jefferies LLC	8-K	001-37378	1.1	April 22, 2022
10.6	Lease, dated May 12, 2022, by and between the Registrant and San Diego Creekside, LLC	8-K	001-37378	10.1	May 16, 2022
31.1	Certification of Principal Executive Officer required by Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—	—	—	Filed herewith
31.2	Certification of Principal Financial Officer required by Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—	—	—	Filed herewith
32.1#	Certification of Principal Executive Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—	—	—	Filed herewith
32.2#	Certification of Principal Financial Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.INS	Inline XBRL Instance Document – the instance document does not appear in the Interactive Data File because XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.SCH	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.CAL	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.DEF	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase Document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.LAB	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase Document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
101.PRE	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase Document	—	—	—	Filed herewith
104	Cover Page Interactive Data File (embedded within the Inline XBRL document)	—	—	—	Filed herewith


	aTyr Pharma, Inc.

Date: ~~August 15,~~November 14, 2022	By:	/s/ Sanjay S. Shukla
		Sanjay S. Shukla, M.D., M.S.
		President and Chief Executive Officer
		(Principal Executive Officer)

	By:	/s/ Jill M. Broadfoot
		Jill M. Broadfoot
		Chief Financial Officer
		(Principal Financial and Accounting Officer)