Exchange Rate Information

The following table sets forth information concerning exchange rates between Renminbi and U.S. dollar for the periods indicated. These rates are provided solely for your convenience and are not necessarily the exchange rates that we used in this annual report or will use in the preparation of our periodic reports or any other information to be provided to you. The source of these rates is the Federal Reserve H.10 Statistical Release. On April 13, 2018, the exchange rate for Renminbi was US$1.00 = RMB6.2725.

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

Our business and financial condition and results of operations are subject to various changing business, competitive, economic, political and social conditions in China and worldwide. In addition to the factors discussed elsewhere in this annual report, the following are some of the important factors that could cause our actual results to differ materially from those projected in any forward-looking statements.

Our business is vulnerable to downturns in the general economy and industries in which we operate or which we serve. A significant reduction in demand could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Demand for our products depends on the general economy and level of activity and growth in the industries where we operate or serve. Adverse development in economic and market conditions, such as a significant economic downturn or a downturn in the commodity sector or the financial markets, could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition and results of operations. Development of the relevant industries is subject to various factors, including but not limited to market fluctuations of prices of commodities, general political or economic conditions, technology development, government regulations and investment plans and fluctuation in domestic and global production capacity, many of which are beyond our control.

We are unable to predict cycles of the global and domestic economies. Concerns over inflation, energy costs, geopolitical issues, the availability and cost of credit, unemployment, consumer confidence, declining asset values, capital market volatility and liquidity issues have created difficult operating conditions for us in the past and may continue to do so in the future. Furthermore, the PRC government has, from time to time, adjusted its monetary, fiscal and other policies and measures to manage the rate of growth of the economy or the overheating and overcapacity in certain industries or markets. As a result, the global and domestic economic conditions or any particular industry in which we operate or which we serve may grow at a lower-than-expected rate or even experience a downturn. Uncertainty about future economic conditions makes it challenging for us to forecast our results of operations, make business decisions and identify risks that may affect our business. If we are not able to timely and appropriately adapt to changes resulting from the difficult macroeconomic environment, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Volatility in the prices of alumina, primary aluminum, other non-ferrous metal and other commodities may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The prices of the products we produce and trade, including alumina, primary aluminum, other non-ferrous metal and coal products, have experienced significant fluctuation historically fluctuated and are expected to continue fluctuatingcontinually fluctuate in response to general economic conditions, supply and demand and the level of global inventories, which are beyond our control.

We price our alumina and primary aluminum products by reference to international and domestic market prices, and domestic supply and demand, each of which may fluctuate beyond our control. We may not be able to effectively respond to a sudden fluctuation in alumina or primary aluminum prices. For example, due to the general slowdown of the global economy and overcapacity of global aluminum industry beginning in 2015, the range for the high and low prices for the Australian FOB spot price for alumina and the international cash price for primary aluminum on the LME declined in 20152016 to a high of US$354.5 per tonne and a low of US$200 per tonne and a high of US$1,959.1 per tonne and a low of US$1,423.5 per tonne, respectively, and further declined in 2016 to US$350.5 per tonne and a low of US$197.0 per tonne and a high of US$1,778 per tonne and a low of US$1,449 per tonne, respectively. However, due to global economic recovery and adjustment of production capacity in the PRC primary aluminum industry as a result of the supply-side structural reform carried out by the PRC government, the range for the high and low prices for the Australian FOB spot price for alumina and the international cash price for primary aluminum on the LME increased in 2017 to a high of US$484 per tonne and a low of US$272 per tonne and a high of US$2,256 per tonne and a low of US$1,700 per tonne, respectively. AsDue to supply shortage in the global aluminum and alumina market, the range for the high and low prices for the Australian FOB spot price for alumina and the international cash price for primary aluminum on the LME further increased in 2018 to a result,high of US$710 per tonne and a low of US$357 per tonne and a high of US$2,603 per tonne and a low of US$1,869 per tonne, respectively. In 2018, the average external selling prices for our self-produced alumina and primary aluminum were RMB2,875RMB2,923 per tonne and RMB14,629RMB14,364 per tonne respectively in 2017, which increased2018, representing an increase by approximately 43%1.7% and 20%a decrease by 1.8%, respectively, as compared to the prices in 2016.2017. Because our prices are affected by a variety of factors, most of which are beyond our control, we may not be able to respond promptly to the fluctuation in alumina or primary aluminum prices in international market or domestic market. There is no assurance that there will not be any further and significant fluctuations in prices of our key products, including alumina and primary aluminum, which may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, since our profit margin for trading non-ferrous metal products and coal products is based on price fluctuations in the short term, we need to make the correct prediction of the price fluctuations of these commodities on the markets to maintain our profit margin. If market price fluctuations on the market do not match our prediction, we may incur substantial losses.

In addition, as we generate profit from the differences between the purchase and sales prices of the non-ferrous metal products and the coal products we deal in, significant fluctuations in these prices may cause the value of the outsourced products in transit or in inventory to decline, and if the carrying value of our existing inventories exceeds the market price in the future periods, we may need to make additional provisions for our inventories’ value. As a result, any significant fluctuation in international market prices for these commodities could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business requires substantial capital expenditures that we may not always be able to obtain at reasonable costs and on acceptable terms.

Our plans to upgrade and expand our production capacity will require substantial capital expenditures. See “Item 4. Information on the Company - D. Property, Plants and Equipment - Our Expansion” and “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects - B. Liquidity and Capital Resources - Capital Expenditures and Capital Commitments.” We may also need additional funding for debt servicing, working capital, other investments, potential acquisitions and joint ventures and other corporate requirements.

We may need to seek external financing, such as bank and other loans as well as bond offerings, to satisfy our capital needs if cash generated from our operations is insufficient to fund our capital expenditures or if our actual capital expenditures and investments exceed our plans. Our ability to obtain external financing at reasonable costs and on acceptable terms is subject to a variety of factors, including our credit ratings. Rating agencies may downgrade or withdraw our ratings or place us on “credit watch” based on their assessment of a wide range of factors. For example, records of net losses may result in a deterioration of our credit ratings. Although we were profitable in the recent period including 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2017,2018, we recorded a net loss of approximately RMB17.1 billion in 2014, and we could incur losses in the future, which may adversely affect our corporate ratings and increase our borrowing costs and limit our access to capital markets. Failure to obtain sufficient funding at reasonable costs and on acceptable terms for our development plans could adversely affect our business and prospects.

Our previous adjustments of our business segments and historical results may not be indicative of our future prospects.

In the past few years, we have entered into a new business segment, the energy segment, through acquisition of Ningxia Energy and streamlined our existing business to focus on the productions of alumina and primary aluminum. For instance, in 2013, wesince August 2018, the Company has acquired an aggregate of 70.82% of the equity interest in Ningxia Energy, an integrated power generation company with coal mines located in Ningxia Autonomous Region. Its principal business includes conventional coal-fire power generation and renewable energy generation. After the acquisition of Ningxia Energy, we established an energy segment in January 2013 to include (i) operations of Ningxia Energy and (ii) our other energy related operations that were formerly included in our corporate and other operating segment. In November 2015, we acquired relevantcertain carbon assets and liabilities of High-Purity Aluminum Plant and Light Metal Material Plant of Baotou Aluminum Group. Baotou Aluminum Group is a subsidiary of Chinalco. In addition, in line with our development strategy to focus onequity interests from the development of our core business in alumina and primary aluminum production, where we have an established leading market positions, and to reduce future capital expenditures on iron ore development, improve asset-to-debt ratio and generate expected cash flows, we disposed of our 65% equity interest in Chalco Iron Ore to a wholly-owned subsidiaryaffiliated enterprises of Chinalco on December 26, 2013.Assets, through which we are able to consummate our industrial chain as carbon products are one of major raw materials for production of primary aluminum. In December 2015,2018, we transferred aacquired 50% equity interests in Shanxi Huaxing a wholly owned subsidiary of our Company, through the Shanghai United Assets and Equity Exchange at a price of RMB2,351 million. Pursuant to a resolution passed at the 2015 second general meetingapproximately RMB2,665.2 million from Baotou Transportation Investment Group Co., Ltd. Upon completion of the Company held on December 29, 2015, the proceeds raised from the disposalacquisition, Shanxi Huaxing became a wholly-owned subsidiary of the equity interestsCompany. The acquisition is conducted for purposes of enhancing our profitability and is in line with our strategic layout of alumina and aluminum business, as the increase of our shareholding in Shanxi Huaxing, would be used for permanent replenishment of liquidity required foran alumina plant, is expected to enhance the operation of the Company. In May 2017, we and Chinalco entered into an equity transfer agreement pursuant to whichsynergy with our primary aluminum production in Shanxi, where we have agreed to acquire Chinalco’s 40% equity interests in Chinalco Shanghai, which primarily engages in trading and managementnewly added production capacity of engineering projects, to implement our strategic layout and business development plan. Chinalco Shanghai became our wholly-owned subsidiary upon completion of the transfer.primary aluminum. For further details of these acquisitions, please see “Item 4. Information on the Company - A. History and Development of the Company.”

There is no assurance that we will enter into a new business segment or continue to streamline our existing business as we have done so in the past. In addition,Moreover, we cannot assure you that the benefit of entering into a new business segment or streamlining our existing business will be fully realized as expected or at all.

In addition, we have experienced growth in recent years. For example, our revenues for 2016, 2017 and 2018 were RMB144,854.6 million, RMB181,020.4 million and RMB180,240.2 million, respectively. However, such performance was driven by a wide range of factors, many of which are out of our control or may not be sustainable or indicative of future growth or performance, such as the prices of coal, electricity and other raw materials. No assurance can be given that our financial conditions or results of operations will be maintained at any level. As a result, our historical results may not be indicative of our future prospects and results of operations.

Our failure to successfully manage our business expansion, including our expansion into new areas of business, would have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and prospects.

We have investedmade investments in business expansion in line with our development strategy through organic growth, acquisitions and joint ventures.ventures in the past. In addition, we may, from time to time and when we deem appropriate, expand into new industries which we believe have synergies with our existing operations. For example, we have successfully enhanced our energy-related operations through the acquisition of Ningxia Energy in 2013 and participation in joint ventures and strategic investments in coal mining since 2010.

Our expansion has created, and will continue to place, substantial demand on our resources. Managing our growth and integrating the acquired businesses will require us to, among other things:

Any significant difficulty in meeting the foregoing or similar requirements could delay or otherwise constrain our ability to implement our expansion plans, or result in failure to achieve the expected benefits of the combination or acquisition or write-offs of acquired assets or investments, which in turn would limit our ability to increase operational efficiency, reduce marginal manufacturing costs or otherwise strengthen our market position. Failure to obtain the intended economic benefits from the business expansion could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. In addition, we may also experience mixed results from our expansion plans in the short term.

Furthermore, there is no assurance that we will be able to identify attractive acquisition targets, obtain favorable deal terms in any acquisition, secure applicable governmental approvals for any proposed investments, accurately estimate the mineral resources and reserves of these acquisition targets or obtain the necessary funding to complete such acquisitions on commercially acceptable terms or at all. Acquisitions may result in the incurrence and inheritance of debts and other liabilities, assumption of potential legal liabilities in respect of the acquired businesses, and incurrence of impairment charges related to goodwill and other intangible assets, any of which could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. In particular, if any of the acquired businesses fail to perform as we expect, we may be required to recognize a significant impairment charge, which may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. As a result, there can be no assurance that we will be able to achieve the strategic purpose of any acquisition, the desired level of operational integration or our investment return target.

Our joint ventures and strategic investment may not be successful.

We may from time to time enter into joint ventures or make strategic investment to grow our business and operations. For example, since 2010, we have participated in joint ventures and strategic investment in coal mining, in line with our development strategy to diversify our product offering and partially offset our future energy costs, as well as supply a portion of the coal we consume in our operations. In addition, we have acted as joint venture partner or strategic investor in certain projects which engage in primary aluminum, aluminum alloy and light alloy manufacturing to diversify our product offering, strategically position ourselves along the industrial chain and facilitate our enterprise transformation and upgrade. For further details of these projects,certain of our joint ventures and strategic investment, please see “Item 4. Information on the Company - A. History and Development of the Company” and “Item 4. Information on the Company - D. Property, Plants and Equipment – Our Expansion.”

We have non-controlling interests in a number of joint ventures. Although we have not been materially constrained by the nature of our ownership interests, no assurance can be given that our joint venture partners will not exercise their power of veto or their controlling influence in any of our joint ventures in a way that will hinder our corporate objectives and reduce any anticipated cost savings or revenue enhancement resulting from these joint ventures. In addition, whether or not we hold majority interests or maintain operational control in such joint ventures, such arrangements necessarily involve special risks and our joint venture partners may:

In addition, our joint ventures which operate coal mines were facing increasing risks in recent years. Due to more stringent regulations on environmental protection, imbalances between supply and demand in the coal market and level of inventory, the coal prices declined in 2015. In the first half of 2016 the coal prices continued their downward trend and reached their lowest point in August 2016. The coal prices then rebounded after August 2016 as a result of the PRC government’s policy of cutting excessive coal production capacity as well as decrease in hydroelectricity and increase in transportation costs. The coal prices in 2017, with seasonal fluctuations, were generally higher than the prices in 2016. In 2018, the coal prices fluctuated at a relatively high price level. However, we cannot assure you the coal price will continue to increase or maintain at the current price level in the future. If coal prices decrease in the future, the business, financial condition and results of operations of these joint ventures which operate coal mines may be adversely affected.

We are implementing the proposed asset restructuring, the finalization of which is still subject to uncertainty.

We are in the process of implementing the proposed asset restructuring. On December 4, 2017, we entered into certain investment and debt conversion agreements with several investors (the “Restructuring Investors”). Pursuant to these agreements, in December 2017, certain of the Restructuring Investors made cash contributions to our subsidiaries, Chalco Shandong, Chalco Zhongzhou, Baotou Aluminum and Chalco Mining (together the “Target Subsidiaries”), while the principal of loans owed by Chalco Mining to some of the Restructuring Investors prior to signing of the investment and debt conversion agreements was converted into equity interest in Chalco Mining held by these investors. Subsequently, on January 31, 2018, we entered into equity purchase agreements with the Restructuring Investors pursuant to which we have agreed to purchase all their equity interest in the Target Subsidiaries with consideration in the form of our A shares to be issued to the Restructuring Investors. Cash contributions received from the investors have been used by us for the repayment of loans. The proposed asset restructuring has helped reduce the gearing ratios of these subsidiaries and the Group as a whole.

The completion of the issuance of additional A Shares to these investors is still conditioned upon various factors, including the approval by SASAC and CSRC, and the general and class approvals by shareholders of the Company. Please refer to “Item 4. Information on the Company - A. History and Development of the Company – Subscription of Equity Interest of Certain Subsidiaries and Subsequent Issuance of Additional A Shares” for further details.

There is no assurance as to whether and when these approvals will be obtained, or whether the asset restructuring can be completed without undue delays or at all. In addition, we may continue to incur high gearing ratios in the future and our exposure to liquidity risk may restrict our ability to make capital expenditure or develop business opportunities in the future, which may adversely affect our results of operations and financial positions.

Failure to maintain optimal utilization of our production facilities will adversely affect our gross and operating margins.

During the past few years, we expanded the production capacity by completing our construction, upgrading or remouldingremolding of some of our alumina and primary aluminum production facilities. If we are able to maintain satisfactory facility utilization rates and increase our production output, this increase in our production capacity would enable us to reduce our unit costs through economies of scale, as fixed costs will be spread over a higher volume of output units. Conversely, underutilization of our existing and newly acquired or constructed production facilities may increase our marginal production costs and prevent us from realizing the intended economic benefits of our expansion.

Since 2013, we have implemented flexible production arrangements from time to time for certain alumina and primary aluminum production facilities in response to prevailing market conditions. In February 2017, the PRCconditions and government issued the 2017 Working Plan of Air Pollution Prevention and Controlpolicies. For example, due to local environmental requirements for Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas to improve regional air quality and strengthen air pollution control in the winter heating season. Accordingly,season, the output of and the utilization rates of production facilities at Chalco Shandong Chalco Mining and Chalco ZhongzhouHuayu in the winter heating season have been reduced. In addition, we may increase our external purchases of alumina and primary aluminum for trading purposes to capitalize on fluctuating market prices and to enhance resource planning to achieve cost savings in our production. The increase in our external purchases will reduce our utilization of certain production facilities, but may not result in a proportionate decrease in fixed costs such as leases and depreciation of plant, property and equipment.

If we fail to maintain optimal utilization rates and spread fixed costs over a high volume of output units, our gross and operating margins may be adversely affected.

We may be required to record impairment charges in the future.

If business conditions deteriorate, long lived assets need to be reviewed for possible impairment. Impairment loss needs to be recognized to the extent that the carrying amount exceeds the recoverable amount. In 20152016, 2017 and 2016,2018, we recorded impairment loss of property, plant and equipment of RMB10.0RMB57.1 million, RMB16.2 million and RMB57.1RMB7.5 million, respectively. In 2017, weWe also recorded impairment loss of property, plant and equipment of RMB15.6 million and impairment losses of intangible assets of RMB8.1 million.million in 2017. We cannot guarantee that we will not incur any impairment loss or our impairment loss will not increase in the future due to various reasons including, but are not limited to, strategic decisions made in response to changes in economic and competitive conditions, the impact of the economic environment on our customer base and material adverse changes in our relationship with significant customers. If we record significant impairment charges, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Our operations consume substantial amounts of electricity, and our profitability may decline if electricity costs rise or if our electricity supplies are interrupted.

Our operations consume substantial amounts of electricity. Although we generally expect to meet the electricity consumption requirements for our alumina refineries and primary aluminum smelters from a combination of internal and external sources, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected by any significant increase in electricity costs or interruptions in electricity supply.

Cost of electricity is the principal production cost in our primary aluminum operations. The priceDue to the increase in volume of electricity soldgenerated by grid operators is set by the PRC government. In recent years, the PRC government has implemented various rules and measures in relation to the electricity system reform. Pursuant to these rules, we have been authorized to purchase electricity we consume directly fromour own electric power plants at negotiated prices, which have been lower thanand its proportion in the pricetotal volume of electricity purchased from grid operators. However, due to the increase of coal price in 2017 which has resulted in a general increase of price of electricity in the same period,that we consumed, our average electricity cost per kWh of our primary aluminum smelters still increaseddecreased by approximately 21% in2% from 2017 from the level in 2016. Thereto 2018. However, there is no assurance that we will continuously increase the PRC government will not introduce further changes to these rules and measures from time to time which may affect the priceconsumption of electricity and increasegenerated by our average electricity cost,own electric power plants, or that other factorsany factor beyond our control will not result in any increase in the price of electricity. If we are unable to pass on increases in energy costs to our customers, our operating margin, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

In addition, interruptions in the supply of electricity can result in costly production shutdowns, increased costs associated with restarting production and the waste of production in progress. A sudden loss of electricity, if prolonged, can cause damage to or the destruction of production equipment and facilities. In such an event, we may need to expend significant capital and resources to repair or replace the affected production equipment to restore our production capacity. In the past, various regions across China experienced shortages and disruptions in electricity supply, especially during peak demand summer season or under severe weather conditions. We cannot assure you that our operations will not suffer from shortages or disruptions in electricity supply, the occurrence of which could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our operations consume substantial amounts of coal, and our operations may be adversely affected if we are not able to procure sufficient coal or if coal prices rise significantly.

We rely heavily on coal as our energy and fuel source in our operations. As we increase our alumina refining capacity, our consumption of coal will increase accordingly. If we are not able to obtain the amount of coal needed for our production due to a shortage of coal, constraints on coal transportation or any other reason, we may be forced to reduce our production output or suspend our alumina refining operations, which could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. Although we have acquired equity interest in a number of coal mines, we expect to continue to rely substantially on third-party coal suppliers for the supply of coal. In addition, ourOur average purchase price per unit tonne of thermal coal used in our alumina production increased by approximately 42%3% in 20172018 from the level in 2016.2017. If we are unable to pass on increases or otherwise significant fluctuations in coal prices to our customers or offset price increases through productivity improvements, our operating margin, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Our business and industry may be affected by the development of alternative energy sources and climate change.

Our operations consume substantial amounts of coal. Coal combustion generates significant greenhouse gas and other pollutants, and the effects of climate change resulting from global warming and increased pollution levels may provide incentives for governments to promote or invest in “green” energy technologies such as wind, solar, nuclear and biomass power plants, or to reduce their consumption of conventional energy sources such as coal. A number of governments or governmental bodies have introduced or are contemplating legislative and regulatory changes in response to the potential impacts of climate change. These regulatory mechanisms may impact our operations directly or indirectly through our customers or supply chain. We may have to increase our capital expenditures in order to comply with such revised or new legislation or regulations, and may realize changes to profit or loss arising from increased or decreased demand for our products and indirectly, from changes in costs of goods sold, which may adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

In addition, we have invested in coal mining operations. Although revenues attributable to our energy segment accounted for only approximately 3.2%3.9% of our total revenues in 20172018 (after elimination of inter-segment sales), we might still be affected by the growth of the PRC thermal power industry, which relies on coal as main source of fuel. The PRC thermal power industry may be affected by the development of alternative energy sources, climate change and global environmental factors. In particular, pursuant to China’s 13th Five-Year Plan for Environmental Protection, the PRC government plans to continue to encourage the development of alternative energy sources, such as wind power, solar power, biomass and geothermal energy, from 2016 to 2020. As such, alternative energy industries may rapidly develop and gradually gain mainstream acceptance in the PRC and the rest of the world. If alternative energy technologies continue to develop and prove suitable for wide commercial application in the PRC and overseas, demand for conventional energy sources, such as coal, could be reduced. Such reduction in demand for coal could have a material adverse effect on the coal mining industry and, consequently, negatively affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We may not be able to continue competing successfully in the markets in which we operate.

In 2017,2018, we sold all of our self-produced alumina and self-produced primary aluminum to domestic customers. Our alumina (with chemical alumina products included) and primary aluminum production represented approximately 20.5%21.2% and 9.8%11.4%, respectively, of total domestic production in China in 2017.2018. We face competition from both domestic and international alumina and primary aluminum producers. Our principal competitors are major domestic refineries and smelters. These producers compete with our alumina and primary aluminum operations on the basis of product cost, quality and pricing. In addition, we face increasing competition from international alumina and primary aluminum suppliers as a result of the elimination of tariffs on imports of primary aluminum and alumina into China. See “Item 4. Information on the Company - B. Business Overview - Competition” for further details.

Increasing competition in our product markets may reduce our selling prices or sales volumes, which will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. If we are unable to price our products competitively, maintain or increase our current share of China’s alumina and primary aluminum markets or otherwise maintain our competitiveness, our financial condition, results of operations and profitability could be materially and adversely affected.

Our overseas expansion exposes us to political and economic risks, commercial instability and events beyond our control in the countries in which we plan to operate.

We are currently undertaking a couple of overseas projects, including the bauxite mining projects in Laos, Indonesia and Indonesia.Guinea. Due to uncertainties involved in the overseas projects, we cannot assure you that our overseas expansion or investments will be successful or that we will not suffer foreign exchange losses in connection with our overseas investment.

In addition, operations in the overseas markets also expose us to a number of risks including expropriation and nationalization of our assets in foreign countries, civil unrest, acts of terrorism, war, or other armed conflict; shortages of construction equipment and materials; severe weather conditions; epidemic diseases and infectious diseases; natural disasters; inflation; currency fluctuations, devaluations and conversion restrictions; confiscatory taxation or other adverse tax policies, governmental activities that limit or disrupt markets, restrict payments or limit the movement of funds, governmental activities that may result in the deprivation of contractual rights; lack of a well-developed legal system that makes it difficult to enforce our contractual rights; and governmental activities that may result in the inability to obtain or retain licenses required for operations.

Our profitability and operations could be adversely affected if we are unable to obtain a steady supply of raw materials at competitive prices.

Historically, the price for bauxite, our most important raw material for alumina production, has been volatile. We obtain bauxite for our operations from our mines and external suppliers. See “Item 4. Information on the Company - B. Business Overview - Raw Materials - Alumina - Supply.” The extents to which we procure bauxite from each of these sources affect the security of our supply or cost of bauxite. The supply of bauxite could be affected by various factors, including geographic conditions of bauxite mines, government policies, market prices and competition, many of which are beyond our control. We rely on overseas suppliers to obtain a portion of bauxite we use for production. Indonesia used to be a major source of our imported bauxite. As a result of the ban imposed by the Indonesia Government of Indonesia on the exportation of unprocessed bauxite and nickel, since January 2014, we have not been able to export the bauxite produced by our bauxite mines in Indonesia for the use of our alumina refineries in China, and our operation of bauxite mining in Indonesia has been suspended since September 2014. See “Item 4. Information on the Company - B. Business Overview - Raw Materials - Alumina – Own Mines” for more details of our bauxite mines in Indonesia. If we exhaust our stockpiles or our procurement of bauxite from external suppliers are interrupted for any reasons, and cannot find an alternative source of bauxite at competitive prices, our financial condition, results of operations and profitability could be adversely affected.

In addition, our results of operations can be affected by increases in the cost of other raw materials and other key inputs such as energy. If we cannot obtain a steady supply of key raw materials at competitive prices, our financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Any transportation interruption or any material increase in our transportation costs could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our operations require the reliable transportation of raw materials and supplies to our refining and smelting sites and finished products to our customers. Our alumina products are mainly transported by rail or trucks and our primary aluminum products are delivered to our customers primarily by rail. There is no assurance that we can always enjoy sufficient transportation capacity or we will not experience transportation interruption in the future. Furthermore, natural disasters may cause interruption to the transportation system, which could in turn affect the transportation of our products. In addition, any changes in fuel prices or fuel supply may be unpredictable and beyond our control. There is no assurance that shortage of fuel will not occur in the future. Any surge in fuel prices or shortage of fuel supply may lead to increases in our operation and transportation costs. If we are unable to make timely deliveries due to logistical and transportation disruptions, or transfer the increased costs to our customers, our production, reputation and results of operations may be adversely affected.

The bauxite reserve data in this annual report are only estimates, which may prove to be inaccurate.

The bauxite reserve data based on which we prepare our production and expenditure plans are only estimates that we have developed internally and may prove to be inaccurate. There are numerous uncertainties inherent in estimating quantities and qualities of reserves, including many factors beyond our control. If these estimates are inaccurate or the indicated tonnages are not recovered, our business, financial condition, and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Our mining operations have limited mine lives and eventual closure of these operations will entail costs and risks regarding ongoing monitoring, rehabilitation and compliance with environmental standards.

Our existing mining operations in the PRC and overseas have limited mine lives and will eventually be depleted. We need to perform certain procedures to remedy and rehabilitate the environmental and social impact that our mining operations have had on local communities and the environment. Remediation, rehabilitation, closure and removal of our facilities will incur various costs and are subject to various risks. The key costs and risks for mine closures include, among others, (i) long-term management of permanent engineered structures and acid rock drainage; (ii) closure in accordance with local or international environmental standards; (iii) orderly retrenchment of employees and third-party contractors; and (iv) orderly transfer of the site, its associated permanent structures and community development infrastructure and programmesprograms to new owners. There is no assurance that such closure of mines will be successful and without delays or additional costs, in which case we may be subject to increased costs, penalties or other legal or administrative actions, damages to reputation, or even suspension and cancellation of mining permits, the occurrence of which would cause a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Failure to discover new reserves or resources, maintain or enhance existing reserves or resources, develop new mining operations or expand our current mining operations could negatively affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Mining exploration is unpredictable in nature. The success of any mining exploration programmeprogram depends on various factors, many of which are beyond our control. Due to the unpredictable and speculative nature of the mining industry, there is no assurance that any exploration programmeprogram that we are currently undertaking or may undertake in the future will result in the discovery of valuable reserves or resources. There is no assurance that reported resources can be converted into reserves. Furthermore, actual results upon production may differ from those anticipated at the time of discovery. To access additional reserves in explored areas, we will need to successfully complete development projects, including but not limited to extending existing mines and developing new mines. There are a number of uncertainties inherent in the development and construction of any new mine or an extension of an existing mine, including but not limited to (i) the availability and timing of necessary governmental approvals; (ii) the timing and cost necessary to construct mining and processing facilities; (iii) the availability and cost of labor, utilities, auxiliary materials and other supplies and the accessibility of transportation and other infrastructure; and (iv) the availability of funds to finance construction and production activities. There is no assurance that any future exploration activities or development projects will extend the life of our existing mining operations or result in any new economic mining operations and such failure may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our indebtedness could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have relied, and expect to continue to rely, on both short-term and long-term borrowings to fund a significant portion of our capital requirements. As of December 31, 2017,2018, we had approximately RMB62.8RMB47.5 billion in outstanding short-term bonds and short-term bank borrowings (including the current portion of long-term bank and other borrowings) and RMB40.3RMB54.2 billion in outstanding long and medium-term bonds and long-term bank and other borrowings (excluding the current portion of these borrowings). Please see Note 19 to our audited consolidated financial statements for more detailed information about our borrowings. This level of debt could have significant consequences on our operations, including:

Our ability to meet our payment and other obligations under our outstanding debt depends on our ability to generate cash flows in the future or to refinance such debt. We cannot assure you that our business will generate sufficient cash flows from operations to satisfy our obligations under our outstanding debt and to fund other liquidity needs. If we are not able to generate sufficient cash flows to meet such obligations, we may need to refinance or restructure our debt, reduce or delay capital investments, or seek additional equity or debt financing. The sale of additional equity securities could result in dilution to our ADS holders. A shortage of financing could in turn impose limitations on our ability to plan for, or react effectively to, changing market conditions or to expand through organic and acquisitive growth, thereby reducing our competitiveness. We cannot assure you that future financing will be available in amounts or on terms acceptable to us, if at all.

The instruments governing our senior debt contain a number of significant financial and other covenants that restrict our ability to raise further debt, take certain corporate actions and pay dividends.

We completed the issuance of US$350 million in aggregate principal amount of 6.625% senior perpetual capital securities and US$500 million in aggregate principal amount of 4.25% senior perpetual capital securities (altogether, the(the “Securities”) in October 2013 and November 2016, respectively, through Chalco Hong Kong Investment Company Limited (the “Bond Issuer”) with guarantees to the repayment obligations of the Securities provided by Chalco Hong Kong and its certain subsidiaries (the “Subsidiary Guarantors”Guarantor”). Please refer to “Item 4. Information on the Company - A. History and Development of the Company - Senior Perpetual Capital Securities Offering” for further details.

The indentures governing the Securities contain a number of significant financial and other covenants. Such covenants restrict, subject to certain exceptions, among other things, our and our subsidiaries’ ability to create, or have outstanding, any security interest upon our or our subsidiaries’ present or future undertaking, assets or revenues to secure any indebtedness which is in the form of bonds, notes, debentures, loan stock or other securities which for the time being are, or are intended to be or capable of being, quoted, listed or dealt in or traded on any stock exchange or over-the-counter or other securities market (“Relevant Indebtedness”) which is issued outside the PRC, our ability to create or have any Relevant Indebtedness which is issued outside the PRC, our ability to create or have outstanding any guarantee or indemnity in respect of any Relevant Indebtedness which is issued outside the PRC and the Bond Issuer’s, Subsidiary Guarantors’Guarantor’s and their respective subsidiaries’ ability to create, or have outstanding, any security interest upon their present or future undertaking, assets or revenues to secure any Relevant Indebtedness or any guarantee or indemnity in respect of any Relevant Indebtedness or to sell or otherwise dispose of capital stock held or controlled by it in any direct or indirect subsidiary of Chalco Hong Kong which is not a Subsidiary Guarantor. These covenants restrict our ability to raise additional funds in the future through issuing Relevant Indebtedness which is issued outside the PRC or creating or having any guarantee or indemnity in respect of any Relevant Indebtedness which is issued outside the PRC and may restrict our ability to engage in some transactions that we expect to be of benefit to us.

The Securities are guaranteed by Chalco Hong Kong and its certain subsidiaries.Kong. A breach of any of the covenants in the indenture governing the Securities could result in redemption of the Securities at our discretion or an increase of coupon rate if we do not redeem the Securities upon a breach of such covenants. If we default under the Securities in the future, the holders may enforce their claims against the guarantors to satisfy our obligations to them. In addition, such default may result in a default and acceleration of our senior debt and the holders of our senior debt could gain ownership of the capital stock of certain of our wholly ownedwholly-owned subsidiaries (if such capital stock is pledged for such senior debt) and/or enforce their claims against the assets of the guarantors (if guarantee is provided for such senior debt). Consequently, we could lose control or ownership of certain of our assets and operations of these subsidiary guarantorsthe Subsidiary Guarantor or pledgers.

In addition to the Securities, in October 2015 and October 2018, our Company issued RMB2,000 million in aggregate principal amount of 5.50% perpetual medium-term notes (the “2015 Perpetual Medium-term Notes”) and RMB2,000 million in aggregate principal amount of 5.10% perpetual medium-term notes (the “2018 Perpetual Medium-term Notes”), respectively, in China. Pursuant to the terms of the 2015 Perpetual Medium-term Notes and the 2018 Perpetual Medium-term Notes, while any coupon distribution payments are unpaid or deferred, the headquarters of the Company cannot declare or pay dividends to shareholders or decrease the share capital, or make material fixed asset investments of the headquarters of the Company. Therefore, our ability to pay dividends in respect of our ordinary shares and the ADSs may be limited under certain circumstances.

The interests of our controlling shareholder who exerts significant influence over us may conflict with ours.

As of December 31, 2017,2018, our largest shareholder, Chinalco, directly owned 32.81%33.89% of our issued share capital and indirectly owned an additional 1.96%2.73% of our issued share capital through its controlled entities. The interests of Chinalco may conflict or even compete with our interests and those of our public shareholders. Chinalco may take actions that are in the interest of its subsidiaries, associates and other related entities to our detriment. For example, Chinalco may seek to influence our decision as to the amount of dividends we declare and distribute. Any increase in our dividend payout would reduce funds otherwise available for reinvestment in our businesses and thus may adversely affect our future prospects and financial condition.

In addition, Chinalco and a number of its subsidiaries and associates provide a range of services to us, including engineering and construction services, social services, land and property leasing as well as the supply of raw and supplemental materials. It would be difficult to find an alternative source for some services that we receive from Chinalco. Our cost of operations may increase if Chinalco, its subsidiaries and associates are unable to continue providing such services to us.

In January 2019, Yunnan SASAC gratuitously transferred its 51% equity interest in Yunnan Metallurgical Group Co., Ltd. to China Copper, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Chinalco. As Yunnan Aluminum Co., Ltd., an affiliated company of Yunnan Metallurgical Group Co., Ltd., competes with us in the business segments of alumina and primary aluminum, Chinalco, as the indirect controlling shareholder of Yunnan Aluminum Co., Ltd. and our direct controlling shareholder, issued a letter of undertakings on non-competition to us, according to which Chinalco undertook to start in 2019 planning the integration of the businesses in which Yunnan Aluminum Co., Ltd. and we compete with each other, and address such business competition within five years. For further details, please see “Item 4. Information on the Company - A. History and Development of the Company.” While we intend to closely monitor Chinalco’s planning and implementation of such business integration and make timely public disclosure about significant progress made, due to the uncertainties involved in such business integration, however, we cannot assure you that business competition between Yunnan Aluminum Co., Ltd. and us would be addressed without undue delays or at all, or the plan of such business integration or the implementation thereof would be viewed by you or other investors as most favorable to us or our shareholders.

We are subject to, and incur costs to comply with, environmental laws and regulations.

As we produce air emissions, discharge waste water, and handle hazardous substances at our bauxite mines, alumina refineries and primary aluminum smelters, we are subject to, and incur costs to comply with, environmental laws and regulations.

Given the magnitude, complexity and continuous amendments to these laws and regulations, compliance therewith may be onerous or may involve substantial financial and other resources to establish efficient compliance and monitoring systems. The liabilities, costs, obligations and requirements associated with these laws and regulations may therefore be substantial and may delay the commencement of, or cause interruptions to, our operations. Non-compliance with the relevant laws and regulations applicable to our operations may even result in substantial penalties or fines, suspension or revocation of our relevant licenses or permits, termination of government contracts or suspension of our operations. For example, in November 2017, our Lanzhou branch received an administrative penalty of RMB100,000 from Lanzhou Municipal Environmental Protection Bureauwas fined by the local environmental protection authorities due to the fact that our Lanzhou branch did not conduct the application registration for storage of residues generated from overhaul of electrobath according to relevant requirements. We paid such penalty in full in November 2017. In December 2017, the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China posted on its website request for our Lanzhou branch to complete the rectification process by March 31, 2018. We started the rectification process in December 2017 and completed as requested through a series of measures, including, among others, relocation of the non-compliantly-stowed overhaul residues to plants in compliance with applicable requirements, construction at our Lanzhou branch of a production line with environmentally-sound treatment of overhaul residues which began operation in March 2018, restoration of the sites previously used to store overhaul residue by Lanzhou branch and improving internal management measures on solid waste treatment by including more stringent requirements.

We However, we cannot assure you that the similar events would not occur in the future, if such incidents were to occur, it could impact our operating results, financial condition and reputation, all of which could adversely affect our profitability and ability to retain existing customers and to attract new customers.

In addition, the environmental laws and regulations in the PRC and other jurisdictions in which we operate continue to evolve. As a result, we may incur significant additional costs if relevant laws and regulations change or enforcement of existing laws and regulations becomes more rigorous. For instance, to comply with the requirement of desulphurization and denitration in China, we were requested to invest in upgrading or remouldingremolding certain production facilities. Due to serious haze hovering in certain areas in China, the PRC government of the PRC has issued and may continue to issue rules and regulations to restrict production of certain industries in certain areas to alleviate air pollution. For example, in February 2017, the PRC government issued the 2017 Working Plan of Air Pollution Prevention and Control for Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areaspollution, pursuant to improve regional air quality and strengthen air pollution control in the winter heating season. Accordingly,which we have reduced themay reduce output of Chalco Shandong, Chalco Mining and Chalco Zhongzhou in the winter heating season.our relevant plants from time to time. Further, our overseas expansion projects are subject to foreign environmental laws and regulations. Failure to comply with environmental laws and regulations may trigger a variety of administrative, civil and criminal enforcement measures, including the assessment of monetary penalties, the imposition of remedial requirements and the issuance of orders enjoining future operations, all of which may materially and adversely affect our business operations.

We are subject to administrative policies and orders relating to China’s Energy-Saving and Emission Reduction Goals that could adversely affect our production.

We are subject to administrative energy-saving and emission reduction policies and orders carried out by the central and provincial governments in accordance with China’s Energy-Saving and Emission Reduction Goals. On July 18, 2013, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the PRC (“MIIT”)MIIT issued the Standard Conditions for Aluminum Industry, which sets forth various standards for existing and new projects, including standards for environment protection, energy consumption, and utilization of resources. Although we have been in compliance with the Standard Conditions for Aluminum Industry since its issuance, we cannot assure you that the relevant government authorities will not issue more stringent standards or rules, which may require us to incur additional costs or expenses to comply with these standards or rules, and our existing production may be delayed for facility upgrading or suspended before full compliance with these standards or rules. The occurrence of any of the foregoing could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We are subject to accidents and natural disasters that may adversely affect our performance.

We may experience accidents and natural disasters in the course of our operations, which may cause significant property damage and personal injuries. Significant accidents and natural disasters may cause interruptions to our operations or result in property or environmental damage, increase in operating expenses or loss of revenues.

The occurrence of accidents, natural disasters and the resulting consequences may not be covered adequately, or at all, by the insurance policies we carry. Losses or payments incurred by us as a result of major accidents or natural disasters may have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

We have not obtained valid titles or land use rights to certain properties or land parcels that we occupy.

We have not obtained valid ownership certificates to certain properties that we occupy. These properties are used primarily for production plants and daily operations management. As of December 31, 2017,2018, the book value of our properties with defective titles is RMB6,942RMB5,639 million, which represents approximately 3.47%2.81% of our total asset value. In addition, we had not obtained land use rights to certain land parcels, which we use primarily for our production plants. As of December 31, 2017,2018, the book value of these land parcels is RMB516RMB687 million, representing approximately 0.26%0.34% of our total asset value. We have applied to the appropriate authorities to obtain the relevant ownership certificates. We cannot give any assurance that ownership dispute will not occur or that third parties will not assert any claims against us for compensation in respect of any use of these properties or land parcels.

Our business involves inherent risks and occupational hazards, which could damage our reputation, subject us to liability claims and cause substantial costs to us.

Our business involves inherent risks and occupational hazards. Under our mining operations, we engage or may engage in certain inherently risky and hazardous activities, including, among others, operations at height or on dangerous terrains, underground excavation and construction, use of heavy machinery, mining and handling of flammable and explosive materials, and we are therefore subject to risks associated with these activities, including, among others, geological catastrophes, toxic gas and liquid leakages, equipment failures, industrial accidents, fire, explosions and underground water leakages. Although we conduct geological assessments on mining conditions and adapt our mining plans to the mining conditions at each mine, we cannot assure you that adverse mining conditions will not endanger our workforce, increase our production costs, reduce our bauxite or coal output or temporarily suspend our operations. The occurrence of any of the foregoing events or conditions could have a material adverse impact on our business and results of operations. Additionally, we are exposed to operational risks associated with industrial or engineering activities, such as maintenance problems or equipment failures. These risks and hazards may result in personal injury and fatal casualties, damage to or destruction of properties or production facilities, and pollution and other environmental damage. Any of these consequences, to the extent they are significant, could result in business interruption, possible legal liability and damage to our business reputation and corporate image.

Our mines and operating facilities may be damaged by water, gas, fire or cave-ins due to unstable geological structures. Any significant accident, business disruption or safety incident could result in substantial uninsured costs and the diversion of our resources, which could materially and adversely affect our business operations and financial condition.

We may be subject to product liability claims.

Some of the products we sell or manufacture may expose us to product liability claims relating to property damage or personal injury. The successful assertion of product liability claims against us could result in significant damage payments and harm to our reputation, which in turn could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to risks normally associated with cross-border transactions, and our export products have been and may become subject to anti-dumping or countervailing duty proceedings.

During the past few years, we generated marginal revenue from exports of certain chemical alumina products and also from time to time from exports of certain non-ferrous metals and minerals products to foreign jurisdictions. In 2017, we only engaged in the export of certain chemical alumina products to foreign countries including South Korea and India and revenues generated from such export accounted for approximately 0.5% of our total revenues in 2017. Such foreign jurisdictions and other countries, such as the United States, may take restrictive measures, including, among others, imposition of tariffs, anti-dumping duties and other non-tariff barriers, to protect their own markets. Our sales in overseas markets may be adversely affected by increases in or new impositions of anti-dumping duties, countervailing duties, quotas or tariffs imposed on our exports. Further increases in or new imposition of anti-dumping duties, countervailing duties, quotas or tariffs on our sales in these markets could adversely affect the exports to these regions in the future. By virtue of our transactions with parties outside the PRC, we will be subject to the risks normally associated with cross-border business transactions and activities. We will also be exposed to the risk of changes in social, legal, political and economic conditions in the foreign jurisdictions. In particular, unexpected changes in regulatory requirements, tariffs and other trade barriers and price or exchange controls could limit our operations and make the repatriation of profits difficult.

We are subject to litigation risks.

In the ordinary course of business, claims involving project owners, customers, suppliers and subcontractors may be brought against us and by us in connection with our operations. If we were found to be liable on any of the claims, we would have to incur a charge against earnings to the extent a reserve had not been established for the matter in our accounts, or to the extent the claims were not sufficiently covered by our insurance coverage. Both claims brought against us and by us, if not resolved through negotiations, are often subject to lengthy and expensive litigation or arbitration proceedings. Charges associated with claims brought against us and write-downs associated with claims brought by us could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flow. Moreover, legal proceedings resulting in judgments or findings against us may harm our reputation and damage our prospects for future contract or business awards.

We face counterparty risks.

While we generally sell goods and provide services to reputable customers and evaluate the customers’ credit in accordance with our internal risk management criteria, such as their credit history and likelihood of default, we have limited access to information about our customers and we may encounter difficulties in the collection of receivables in certain countries that we have less experience in our dealings. Therefore, we cannot guarantee that all of our customers will fully perform their obligations under their respective contracts with us, and the deterioration of any customers’ credit or payment conditions may result in those customers defaulting on their contractual obligations, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, disputes with governmental entities and other public organizations could potentially lead to contract termination if these remain unresolved or may take a considerably longer period of time to resolve than disputes with counterparties in the private sector, and payments from these entities and organizations may be delayed as a result.

We may face challenges to our intellectual property rights which could adversely affect our reputation, business and financial position.

We own important intellectual property, including patents and trademarks. Our intellectual property plays an important role in maintaining our competitive position in a number of the markets that we serve. Our competitors may develop technologies that are similar or superior to our proprietary technologies or design around the patents we own or license. Developments or assertions by or against us relating to intellectual property rights, and any inability to protect or enforce these rights, could adversely affect our business and competitive position.

We may be exposed to claims in relation to the unsatisfactory performance of third-party service providers, and disputes with business partners may also adversely affect our business.

We rely on third-party service providers for certain services, including but not limited to mining infrastructure construction, logistics services or warehouse management. Therefore, we are exposed to the risk that our third-party service providers may fail to perform their obligations, which may adversely affect our business operations. In addition, from time to time, we co-operate with business partners to develop our business, including acquiring strategic mining resources or businesses that complement our own business line. Furthermore, we operate certain projects through joint venture arrangements and may enter into further joint ventures in the future along with the expansion of our operations. We may have disputes with these business partners or joint venture partners over various aspects, such as performance of each party’s obligations, scope of each party’s responsibilities, product quality and logistics services. If such disputes cannot be settled in a timely manner, our financial condition and business may be adversely affected.

Failure to hire and retain management executives and other qualified personnel could adversely affect our business and prospects.

The growth of our business operations depends on the continued services of our senior management team. The industry experience, expertise and contributions of our executives and other members of our senior management are essential to our continued success. We will require an increasing number of experienced and competent executives in the future to implement our growth plans. If we were to lose the services of any of our key management members and were unable to recruit and retain personnel with equivalent qualifications at any time, the management and growth of our business could be adversely affected.

Competition for qualified personnel in general is intense in the PRC and other markets where we operate. We cannot guarantee that we will be able to maintain an adequately skilled labor force necessary for us to execute our projects or to perform other corporate activities, nor can we guarantee that staff costs will not increase as a result of a shortage in the supply of skilled personnel. If we fail to attract and retain personnel with suitable managerial, technical or marketing expertise or maintain an adequate labor force on a continuous basis, our business operations could be adversely affected and our future growth and expansions may be inhibited.

We may not be able to detect and prevent fraud or other misconduct committed by our employees, representatives, agents, customers, affiliates or other third parties.

We may be exposed to fraud or other misconduct committed by our employees, representatives, agents, customers, affiliates or other third parties that could subject us to litigation, financial losses and sanctions imposed by governmental authorities, as well as adversely affect our reputation, business, financial condition, results of operations and ADS trading prices. Such misconduct may include, among others:

Our internal control procedures are designed to monitor our operations and ensure overall compliance. However, such internal control procedures may be unable to identify, detect or prevent all incidents of non-compliance or suspicious transactions in a timely manner, if at all. In addition, we do not have control over the activities conducted on their own by those of our customers, affiliates or other third parties.

There is no assurance that fraud or other misconduct by our employees, representatives, agents, customers, affiliates or other third parties will not occur in the future. If such fraud or other misconduct does occur and to the extent that our employees, representatives, agents, customers, affiliates or other third parties are penalized for any of their non-compliance activities or are otherwise subject to any sanctions laws of foreign jurisdictions, it may causenegative publicity of us as a result, and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and our ADS trading prices.

Cyber attacks and security breaches may threaten the integrity of our intellectual property and other sensitive information and disrupt our business operations, which could adversely affect our reputation, business and financial position.

We face global cybersecurity threats, which may range from uncoordinated individual attempts to sophisticated and targeted measures directed at us. Cyber attacks and security breaches may include, but are not limited to, attempts to access information, computer viruses, denial of service and other electronic security breaches. Cyber attacks and security breaches may cause equipment failures, loss of information and limited access to systems. For manufacturing companies, cyber attacks and security breaches may result in the theft of sensitive data, including valuable technical and marketing information, disruptions to operations and breakdown of industrial control system. The economic costs to us to eliminate or alleviate cyber attacks and security breaches could be significant and may be difficult to estimate or calculate because the loss may differ based on the identity and motive of the programmer or hacker, which are often difficult to identify. Further, the perpetrators of cyber attacks and security breaches are not restricted to specific groups or persons. These attacks may be committed by company employees or external actors operating in any geography, including jurisdictions where law enforcement measures to address such attacks are unavailable or ineffective, and may even be launched by or at the behest of nation states.

Although we have not experienced any material cybersecurity incidents in the past, we cannot assure you that we will not experience them in the future. Due to the evolving nature of cybersecurity threats, the scope and impact of any future incident cannot be predicted. While we continually workdevote significant resources to security measures to safeguard our systems and mitigate potential risks, such as deploying network protection devices and performing regular security assessment, there is no assurance that such actions will be sufficient to prevent cyber attacks or security breaches that manipulate or improperly use our systems or networks, compromise confidential or otherwise protected information, destroy or corrupt data, or otherwise disrupt our operations. The occurrence of such events could negatively impact our reputation and our competitive position and could result in litigation with third parties, regulatory action, loss of business, potential liability and increased remediation costs, any of which could have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to risks normally associated with cross-border transactions, and our export products have been and may become subject to anti-dumping or countervailing duty proceedings.

During the past few years, we generated marginal revenue from exports of certain chemical alumina products and also from time to time from exports of certain non-ferrous metals and minerals products to foreign jurisdictions. In 2018, we only engaged in the export of certain chemical alumina products to foreign countries including, among others, South Korea, Japan and countries in Southeast Asia, and revenue generated from such export accounted for approximately 0.5% of our total revenues in 2018. Such foreign jurisdictions and other countries may take restrictive measures, including, among others, imposition of tariffs, anti-dumping duties and other non-tariff barriers, to protect their own markets. The sales of our product in overseas markets may be adversely affected by increases in or new impositions of anti-dumping duties, countervailing duties, quotas or tariffs imposed on our exports. Further increases in or new imposition of anti-dumping duties, countervailing duties, quotas or tariffs on our sales in these markets could adversely affect the exports to these regions in the future. For example, since October 1, 2018, the U.S. government has imposed a 10% tariff on various aluminum products imported from China, including chemical alumina products. In 2018, we exported 26,000 tonnes of chemical alumina products to the United States, representing less than 0.1% of our total revenues in 2018. Other than exports of chemical alumina products, we did not have any exports to the United States in 2018. However, if there is any escalation in trade frictions, we cannot assure you whether such development would not have a material adverse effect on the business environment in general, global economic conditions and the stability of global financial markets. Any of these factors affected by the developments in trade barriers could in turn have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

By virtue of our transactions with parties outside the PRC, we will be subject to the risks normally associated with cross-border business transactions and activities. We will also be exposed to the risk of changes in social, legal, political and economic conditions in the foreign jurisdictions. In particular, unexpected changes in regulatory requirements, tariffs and other trade barriers and price or exchange controls could limit our operations and make the repatriation of profits difficult.