As filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on August 11,25, 2021.

No. 333-258071

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

Amendment No. 24

To

FORM S-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

RenovoRx, Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

4546 El Camino Real, Suite B1

Los Altos, CA 94022

(650)-284-4433

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Shaun Bagai

Chief Executive Officer

RenovoRx, Inc.

4546 El Camino Real, Suite B1

Los Altos, CA 94022

(650)-284-4433

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies of all communications to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public:

As soon as practicable after this Registration Statement becomes effective.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, check the following box. [X]☒

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act of 1933, please check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. [  ]☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. [  ]☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. [  ]☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.:

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act. [  ]☐

CALCULATION OF REGISTRATION FEE

(1) Pursuant to Rule 416, the securities being registered hereunder include such indeterminate number of additional securities as may be issuable to prevent dilution resulting from stock splits, stock dividends or similar transactions.

(2) Estimated solely for the purpose of calculating the registration fee in accordance with Rule 457(o) under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”). Includes shares of our common stock and Warrants that the underwriters have the option to purchase to cover over-allotments, if any, of the Units offered hereby.

(3) The proposed maximum aggregate offering price of the Units proposed to be sold in the offering will be reduced on a dollar-for-dollar basis based on the offering price of any Pre-funded Units offered and sold in the offering, and the proposed maximum aggregate offering price of the Pre-funded Units to be sold in the offering will be reduced on a dollar-for-dollar basis based on the offering price of any Units sold in the offering. Accordingly, the proposed maximum aggregate offering price of the Units and Pre-funded Units, if any, is $27,657,500$22,770,000 (including the underwriter’s over-allotment option).

(4) Filing fee included with the Units or Pre-funded Units, as applicable.

(5) Pursuant to Staff Compliance and Disclosure Interpretation 240.06, equals the aggregate exercise price of the Warrants.

(6) The registrant has agreed to issue, upon the closing of this offering, an underwriter’s warrant to Roth Capital Partners, LLC entitling it to purchase a number of shares of common stock equal to 5% of the aggregate shares of common stock (including shares of common stock underlying the Warrants and any Pre-funded Warrants) sold in this offering. The exercise price of the underwriter’s warrant will be equal to 120% of the public offering price of the Units offered hereby.

(7) No additional registration fee is payable pursuant to Rule 457(g) under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended.

(8) $4,255.77$6,049.95 was previously paid.

The registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933 or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Securities and Exchange Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine

The information in this preliminary prospectus is not complete and may be changed. We may not sell these securities until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission is effective. This preliminary prospectus is not an offer to sell these securities and it is not soliciting an offer to buy these securities in any state where the offer or sale is not permitted.

SUBJECT TO COMPLETION, DATED AUGUST 11,25, 2021

PRELIMINARY PROSPECTUS

1,850,0001,800,000 Units, Each Consisting of One Share of Common Stock and Three-QuarterOne Warrant to Purchase One Share of Common Stock

1,850,0001,800,000 Pre-funded Units, Each Consisting of a Pre-funded Warrant to Purchase One Share of Common Stock and Three-QuarterOne Warrant to Purchase One Share of Common Stock

This is our initial public offering. We are offering up to 1,850,0001,800,000 of units of securities (the “Units”) pursuant to this prospectus. Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for our securities. We anticipate that the initial public offering price of our Units will be between $11.00$9.00 and $13.00.$11.00.

Each Unit consists of (a) one share of our common stock and (b) three-quarterone warrant (the “Warrants”) to purchase one share of our common stock at an exercise price equal to $14.40$12.00 (120% of initial public offering price per Unit) per share, assuming an initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit (the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus) exercisable until the fifth anniversary of the issuance date, and subject to certain adjustment and cashless exercise provisions as described herein.

We are also offering to those purchasers, if any, whose purchase of Units in this offering would otherwise result in the purchaser, together with its affiliates and certain related parties, beneficially owning more than 4.99% (or, at the election of the purchaser, 9.99%) of our outstanding common stock immediately following the consummation of this offering, the opportunity to purchase, if the purchaser so chooses, pre-funded units (each a “Pre-funded Unit”) in lieu of Units that would otherwise result in the purchaser’s beneficial ownership exceeding 4.99% (or, at the election of the purchaser, 9.99%) of our outstanding common stock. Each Pre-funded Unit will consist of a pre-funded warrant to purchase one share of our common stock at an exercise price of $0.0001 per share (each a “Pre-funded Warrant”) and a Warrant. The purchase price of each Pre-funded Unit is equal to the price per Unit being sold to the public in this offering, minus $0.0001. The Pre-funded Warrants will be immediately exercisable and may be exercised at any time until all of the Pre-funded Warrants are exercised in full.

We are offering up to 1,850,0001,800,000 Units and up to 1,850,0001,800,000 Pre-funded Units, in the aggregate not exceeding more than a total of 1,850,0001,800,000 units. For each Pre-funded Unit we sell, the number of Units we are offering will be decreased on a one-for-one basis. Units and Pre-funded Units will not be issued or certificated. The shares of common stock or Pre-funded Warrants, as the case may be, and the Warrants included in the Units or the Pre-funded Units, can only be purchased together in this offering, but the securities contained in the Units or Pre-funded Units will be issued separately and will be immediately separable upon issuance.

We have been approved to have our common stock listed on the Nasdaq Capital Market under the symbol “RNXT” upon our satisfaction of the exchange’s initial listing criteria, including the completion of this offering. If we do not meet all of Nasdaq’s initial listing criteria, we will not complete this offering. We do not intend to apply for any listing of the Warrants or Pre-funded Warrants on the Nasdaq Capital Market or any other securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system, and we do not expect a market to develop for the Warrants or Pre-funded Warrants.

We are an “emerging growth company” under the federal securities laws and have elected to comply with certain reduced public company reporting requirements.

Investing in our securities involves a high degree of risk. See “Risk Factors” beginning on page 9.

Neither the Securities and Exchange Commission nor any state securities commission has approved or disapproved of these securities or determined if this prospectus is truthful or complete. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.

(1) The assumed public offering price corresponds to (x) in respect of a Unit, (i) a public offering price per share of common stock of $        and (ii) a public offering price per Warrant of $0.01 and (y) in respect of a Pre-funded Unit (i) a public offering price per Pre-funded Warrant of $         and (ii) a public offering price per Warrant of $0.01.

(2) We refer you to “Underwriting” beginning on page 113116 for additional information regarding underwriters’ compensation.

We have granted Roth Capital Partners, LLC, as representative of the underwriters, an option, to purchase an additional 277,500270,000 shares of our common stock and/or Warrants to purchase 208,125270,000 additional shares of common stock from us (being up to 15% of the shares of common stock, including shares of common stock underlying the Pre-funded Warrants, and/or up to 15% of the Warrants sold in this offering), in any combination thereof, for forty-five (45) days from the date of this prospectus, at prices described herein to cover over-allotments, if any, of the Units and the Pre-funded Units offered hereby. See “Underwriting.”

The underwriters expect to deliver the securities to purchasers on or about                           , 2021.

Sole Book-Running Manager

Roth Capital Partners

Lead Manager

Maxim Group LLC

The date of this prospectus is        , 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Neither we nor the underwriters have authorized anyone to provide you with information other than that contained in this prospectus. We and the underwriters take no responsibility for, and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. We and the underwriters are offering to sell, and seeking offers to buy, the securities offered hereby only in jurisdictions where offers and sales are permitted. The information contained in this prospectus is accurate only as of the date on the front cover page of this prospectus, or other earlier date stated in this prospectus, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or of any sale of our securities.

No action is being taken in any jurisdiction outside the United States to permit a public offering of our securities or possession or distribution of this prospectus in that jurisdiction. Persons who come into possession of this prospectus in jurisdictions outside the United States are required to inform themselves about and to observe any restrictions as to this offering and the distribution of this prospectus applicable to that jurisdiction.

This prospectus includes industry data and forecasts that we have obtained from industry publications and surveys, public filings and internal company sources. Industry publications and surveys and forecasts generally state that the information contained therein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, but there can be no assurance as to the accuracy or completeness of the included information. Statements as to our market position and market estimates are based on independent industry publications, government publications, third party forecasts, management’s estimates and assumptions about our markets and our internal research. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding the market, industry or similar data presented herein, such data involve risks and uncertainties and are subject to change based on various factors, including those discussed under the headings “Risk Factors” and “Cautionary Statement Concerning Forward-Looking Statements” in this prospectus.

PROSPECTUS SUMMARY

The following summary highlights information contained elsewhere in this prospectus. It does not contain all of the information you need to consider in making your investment decision. Before making an investment decision, you should read this entire prospectus carefully and you should consider, among other things, the matters set forth under “Risk Factors” and our financial statements and related notes thereto appearing elsewhere in this prospectus. In this prospectus, except as otherwise indicated, “RenovoRx,” the “Company,” “we,” “our,” and “us” refer to RenovoRx, Inc., a Delaware corporation, and its subsidiaries.

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on developing therapies for the local treatment of solid tumors and conducting a Phase 3 registrational trial for our lead product candidate RenovoGem™. Our therapy platform, RenovoRx Trans-Arterial Micro-Perfusion, or RenovoTAMP™ utilizes approved chemotherapeutics with validated mechanisms of action and well-established safety and side effect profiles, with the goal of increasing their efficacy, improving their safety, and widening their therapeutic window. RenovoTAMP combines our patented U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, cleared delivery system, RenovoCath^®, with small molecule chemotherapeutic agents that can be forced across the vessel wall using pressure, targeting these anti-cancer drugs locally to the solid tumors. While we anticipate investigating other chemotherapeutic agents for intra-arterial delivery via RenovoTAMP, our clinical work to date has focused on gemcitabine, which is a generic drug. Our first product candidate, RenovoGem, is a drug and device combination consisting of intra-arterial gemcitabine and RenovoCath. FDA has determined that RenovoGem will be regulated as, and if approved we expect will be reimbursed as, a new oncology drug product. We have secured FDA Orphan Drug Designation for RenovoGem in our first two indications: pancreatic cancer and cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer, or CCA). We have completed our RR1 Phase 1/2 and RR2 observational registry studies, with 20 and 25 patients respectively, in locally advanced pancreatic cancer, or LAPC. These studies demonstrated a median overall survival of 27.9 months in patients treated with RenovoGem and radiation. Based on previous large randomized clinical trials, the expected survival of LAPC patients is 12-15 months in patients receiving only intravenous (IV) systemic chemotherapy or IV chemotherapy plus radiation (which are both considered standard of care). Unlike the randomized trials that established these standard-of-care results, our RR1 and RR2 clinical trials did not prospectively control the standard of care therapy received prior to RenovoTAMP. Based on FDA safety review of our Phase 1/2 study the FDA allowed us to proceed to evaluate RenovoGem within our Phase 3 registration Investigational New Drug, or IND, clinical trial. Our Phase 3 trial is over 40%44% enrolled as of JulyAugust 15, 2021 and we expect to report data from a planned interim data readout in the second half of 2022. We intend to evaluate RenovoGem in a second indication in a Phase 2/3 trial in hilar CCA (cancer that occurs in the bile ducts that lead out of the liver and join with the gallbladder, also called extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, or HCCA). We plan to propose the trial to the FDA and potentially launch in the first half of 2022. In addition, we may evaluate RenovoGem in other indications, potentially including locally advanced lung cancer, locally advanced uterine tumors, and glioblastoma (an aggressive type of cancer that can occur in the brain or spinal cord). To date, we have used gemcitabine, but in the future we may develop other chemotherapeutic agents for intra-arterial delivery via RenovoCath.

Our RenovoTAMP therapy platform is focused on optimizing drug concentration in solid tumors using approved small molecule chemotherapeutics that enable physicians to isolate segments of the vascular anatomy closest to tumors and force chemotherapy across the blood vessel wall to bathe these difficult-to-reach tumors in chemotherapy. More specifically, our patented approach combines local delivery via our patented RenovoCath delivery system utilizing pressure to force small molecule chemotherapy into the tumor tissue with pre-treatment of the local blood vessels and tissue with standard-of-care radiation therapy to decrease chemotherapy washout. We believe there are many advantages to our approach:

Our lead product candidate, RenovoGem, is a combination of gemcitabine and our patented delivery system, RenovoCath, and is regulated by the FDA as a novel oncology drug product. Our RenovoTAMP platform therapy utilizes pressure mediated delivery of gemcitabine across the arterial wall to bathe the pancreatic tumor tissue in 120mL of saline with 1,000mg/m² of the drug over a 20-minute delivery time (approximately a total of 1,500-2,000mg of drug dependent upon patient Body Surface Area). RenovoCath is an adjustable double balloon catheter designed to isolate the proximal and distal vessel and adjust the distance between the balloons to exclude any branching blood vessel offshoots.

While the field of oncology has seen progress in treating a handful of deadly cancers over the last few decades, there is a common limitation in chemotherapy: enhanced dosing of the drug to impact the tumor while minimizing systemic toxicity. The characteristics of the vasculature, within and surrounding the tumor, can be a limiting step in this goal. For example, LAPC and HCCA are more difficult to treat due to the lack of blood vessels that feed these tumors, making it difficult to expose tumors to chemotherapy, which is typically delivered intravenously. Trans-arterial chemoembolization (TACE) is an established first line therapy for certain solid tumors. A key component of this approach is to identify and isolate vessels feeding the tumor, known as tumor feeders. However, in patients with pancreatic cancer, no tumor feeder vessels are visible during angiography. In the absence of visible tumor feeders, we can introduce drugs directly across the arterial wall into the surrounding tissue via pressurized diffusion.

We are currently evaluating RenovoGem in patients with LAPC in a Phase 3 trial entitled “Targeted Intra-arterial Gemcitabine vs. Continuation of IV (intravenous) Gemcitabine Plus Nab-Paclitaxel Following Induction With Sequential IV Gemcitabine Plus Nab-Paclitaxel and Radiotherapy for Locally Advanced Pancreatic Cancer”, or TIGeR-PaC, trial at 28 US and Belgian sites. The trial is designed to enroll 340 subjects. 145Over 150 patients were enrolled as of JulyAugust 15, 2021. A planned interim data readout is expected during the second half of 2022. We have secured Orphan Drug Designation for RenovoGem, which would provide us with seven years of exclusivity to market intra-arterial use of gemcitabine for LAPC upon New Drug Application, or NDA, approval.

In addition, we intend to evaluate RenovoGem in patients with HCCA, and we have secured FDA Orphan Drug Designation for this indication. We intend to potentially pursue additional indications including locally advanced lung cancer, locally advanced uterine tumors, and glioblastoma.

For our initial indication, LAPC, we have completed two studies. We launched RR1, our first-in-human, dose escalation, Phase 1/2 safety study in May 2015 to evaluate our RenovoTAMP platform by delivering intra-arterial gemcitabine via our patented RenovoCath delivery system. In this safety study, 20 patients with a diagnosis of Stage 3 pancreatic cancer were enrolled. We established the maximum tolerated dose of 1000mg/m² of intra-arterial gemcitabine delivered via RenovoCath. The most common serious adverse events were neutropenia followed by sepsis. After completion of enrollment and demonstration of an early survival efficacy signal in this study, we launched our RR2 observational registry study in June 2016. The key inclusion criteria was a diagnosis of advanced or borderline resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma confirmed by histology or cytology. The primary endpoints were survival, tumor response and performance of RenovoCath. A combination analysis of these two studies demonstrated that survival in “all comers” (n=31) receiving at least one cycle (two treatments over one month) was 29% at two years. Looking at the prior-radiation therapy subset (n=10), 24-month survival was 60% with a median overall survival (mOS) of 27.9 months. This compares favorably both to IV chemotherapy alone, with 24-month survival of 12%, and to chemotherapy + radiation with 24-month survival of 5% and mOS of 12-15 months as demonstrated in historical studies.

We intend to submit our proposed Phase 2/3 clinical trial to evaluate RenovoGem in HCCA, BENEFICIAL, to the FDA as part of a pre-IND submission in the fourth quarter of 2021 and to launch the clinical trial in the first half of 2022. Intra-venous (IV), or systemic, delivery of gemcitabine has been considered standard of care for several solid tumors, and the drug’s anti-cancer tumor effects are well profiled. We intend to explore the application of our RenovoTAMP platform in additional indications including locally advanced lung cancer, locally advanced uterine cancer, and glioblastoma. We have completed and presented data on a lung cancer application in pre-clinical studies, and additional pre-clinical experiments in lung cancer may be conducted. Beyond our initial anti-cancer product candidate, RenovoGem, multiple small molecule therapeutics could be incorporated into our RenovoTAMP platform, and we will opportunistically look to develop other potential product candidates.

Our management team, Board of Directors, and Scientific Advisors provide us with expertise across multiple sectors to drive success through clinical development and subsequent commercialization of our novel therapy platform. Our Chief Executive Officer, Shaun Bagai, has extensive experience running clinical trials as well as launching, creating, and developing new markets for novel therapies at Trans Vascular, Medtronic, Ardian, and HeartFlow. Dr. Ramtin Agah, our Co-Founder and Chief Medical Officer, is a practicing cardiovascular specialist who has 20 years of research experience in vascular biology and disease in both academia and industry. Our Board of Directors includes a wide range of public and private company management and Board experience including drug/device combination and oncology experience. Clinical advisors include experts in surgical oncology, interventional radiology, radiation oncology, and medical oncology. Dr. Daniel Von Hoff, a medical oncologist, was instrumental as the Principal Investigator who brought to market standard of care therapies for pancreatic cancer. Dr. Mike Pishvaian, also a medical oncologist, has extensive experience in running oncology studies and is an Associate sociate Professor, and Department of Oncology Director of the Gastrointestinal, Developmental Therapeutics, and Clinical Research Programs at the NCR Kimmel Cancer Center at Sibley Memorial Hospital Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Dr. Pishvaian is the Principal Investigator/Global Study Chair of our TIGeR-PaC Phase 3 study. Dr. Peter Muscarella is a surgical oncologist and the Director of Pancreatic Surgery, General Surgery Site Director, Weiler Hospital Associate Program Director, and General Surgery Residency Training Program at Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY. Dr. Karyn Goodman serves as our Radiation Monitor for our TIGeR-PaC Phase 3 study and Professor and Vice Chair of Clinical Research, Department of Radiation Oncology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, and Associate Director of Clinical Research at the Tisch Cancer Institute at Mount Sinai. We have two interventional radiology scientific advisors: Dr. Reza Malek, Neurointerventional Radiologist at Minimally Invasive Surgical Solutions and Dr. Jacob Cynamon, Professor of Clinical Radiology of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Chief of the Division of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, and Program Director of the Vascular and Interventional Radiology Fellowship Program at the Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY.

Summary Risk Factors

Our prospects should be considered in light of the risks, uncertainties, expenses and difficulties frequently encountered by similar companies. Our ability to realize our business objectives and execute our strategies is subject to risks and uncertainties, including, among others, the following:

In addition, we face other risks and uncertainties that may materially affect our business prospects, financial condition, and results of operations. You should consider the risks discussed in “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus before investing in our securities.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated in the State of Delaware on December 17, 2012. Our principal executive offices are located at 4546 El Camino Real, Suite B1, Los Altos, CA 94022. Our telephone number is (650) 284-4433. Our website address is https://renovorx.com. Information contained in our website does not constitute any part of, and is not incorporated into, this prospectus.

Implications of Being an Emerging Growth Company

Upon the completion of this offering, we will qualify as an “emerging growth company” under Jumpstart Our Business Act of 2012, as amended, or the JOBS Act. As a result, we will be permitted to, and intend to, rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements. For so long as we are an emerging growth company, we will not be required to:

In addition, Section 107 of the JOBS Act also provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of the extended transition period provided in Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, for complying with new or revised accounting standards. In other words, an emerging growth company can delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have elected to take advantage of the benefits of this extended transition period. Our financial statements may therefore not be comparable to those of companies that comply with such new or revised accounting standards.

We will remain an emerging growth company for up to five years from the date of the first sale of equity securities pursuant to an effective registration statement, or until the earliest of (i) the last day of the first fiscal year in which our total annual gross revenues exceed $1.07 billion, (ii) the date that we become a “large accelerated filer” as defined in Rule 12b-2 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, which would occur if the market value of our common stock that is held by non-affiliates exceeds $700 million as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter or (iii) the date on which we have issued more than $1 billion in non-convertible debt during the preceding three year period.

THE OFFERING

(1)          The number of shares outstanding is based on shares outstanding as of June 30, 2021 and excludes the following:

Except as otherwise indicated herein, all information in this prospectus assumes:

SUMMARY FINANCIAL INFORMATION

The following tables set forth our summary financial data for the periods and as of the dates indicated. The summary statements of operations data for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020 have been derived from our audited financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus. The summary statements of operations data for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and 2021 and the summary balance sheet data as of March 31,June 30, 2021 have been derived from our unaudited condensed interim condensed financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus. Our unaudited condensed interim condensed financial statements have been prepared on a basis consistent with our audited financial statements and, in the opinion of management, reflect all adjustments, consisting only of normal recurring adjustments, necessary for a fair presentation of the financial information set forth in those statements. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for any other period in the future and our interim results are not necessarily indicative of our expected results for the year ending December 31, 2021. You should read the following summary financial data set forth below in conjunction with our financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus and the information in the section titled Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” contained elsewhere in this prospectus.

RISK FACTORS

An investment in our securities involve a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the risks described below, together with the financial and other information contained in this prospectus, before you decide to purchase our securities. If any of the following risks actually occurs, our business, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. In that event, the trading price of our common stock and the market value of the securities offered hereby could decline, and you may lose all or part of your investment.

Risks Related to Our Business

We are a clinical stage company and may never earn a profit.

We are a clinical stage company and have incurred losses since our formation. As of March 31,June 30, 2021, we have an accumulated total deficit of approximately $16.1$17.4 million. For both three-month periodsthe six months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and 2021, we had a net losslosses of approximately $1.1 million. $1.8 million and $2.5 million, respectively. To date, we have experienced negative cash flow from development of our product candidate, RenovoGem, our platform technology, Renovo Trans-Arterial Micro-Perfusion, or RenovoTAMP, and our RenovoCath delivery system. We have not generated any revenue from operations, and we expect to incur substantial net losses for the foreseeable future as we seek to further develop and commercialize RenovoGem. We cannot predict the extent of these future net losses, or when we may attain profitability, if ever. If we are unable to generate significant revenue from RenovoGem or attain profitability, we will not be able to sustain operations.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with developing and commercializing RenovoGem, we are unable to predict the extent of any future losses or when we will attain profitability, if ever. We may never become profitable and you may never receive a return on an investment in our common stock. An investor in our common stock must carefully consider the substantial challenges, risks and uncertainties inherent in the attempted development and commercialization of RenovoGem. We may never successfully commercialize RenovoGem, and our business may not be successful.

We will need to raise substantial additional capital to develop and commercialize RenovoGem, and our failure to obtain funding when needed may force us to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs or collaboration efforts. If we do not obtain adequate and timely funding, we may not be able to continue as a going concern.

As of March 31,June 30, 2021, our cash and cash equivalents were approximately $0.8$1.6 million, and our working capital deficit was approximately $3.6$5.0 million. Due to our recurring losses from operations and the expectation that we will continue to incur losses in the future, we will be required to raise additional capital to complete the development and commercialization of our product candidates. We have historically relied upon private sales of our equity as well as debt financings to fund our operations. In order to raise additional capital, we may seek to sell additional equity and/or debt securities, obtain a credit facility or other loan or enter into collaborations, licenses or other similar arrangements, which we may not be able to do on favorable terms, or at all. Our ability to obtain additional financing will be subject to a number of factors, including market conditions, our operating performance and investor sentiment. If we are unable to raise additional capital when required or on acceptable terms, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development and/or commercialization of our product candidate, restrict our operations or obtain funds by entering into agreements on unfavorable terms. Failure to obtain additional capital at acceptable terms would result in a material and adverse impact on our operations. As a result, there is substantial doubt about our ability to operate as a going concern.

Our financial statements have been prepared on a going concern basis and do not include any adjustments that may result from the outcome of this uncertainty. If we fail to raise additional working capital, or do so on commercially unfavorable terms, it would materially and adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations, and we may be unable to continue as a going concern. If we seek additional financing to fund our business activities in the future and there remains substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern, investors or other financing sources may be unwilling to provide additional funding to us on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. If we are unable to continue as a going concern, we might have to liquidate our assets and the value we receive for our assets in liquidation or dissolution could be significantly lower than the values reflected in our financial statements, and our shareholders may lose their entire investment in our ordinary shares.

Our product candidates’ commercial viability remains subject to current and future preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approvals, and the risks generally inherent in the development of a pharmaceutical product candidate. If we are unable to successfully advance or develop our product candidate, our business will be materially harmed.

In the near-term, failure to successfully advance the development of our product candidate may have a material adverse effect on us. To date, we have not successfully developed or commercially marketed, distributed, or sold any product candidate. The success of our business depends primarily upon our ability to successfully advance the development of our current and future product candidates through preclinical studies and clinical trials, have the product candidates approved for sale by the FDA or regulatory authorities in other countries, and ultimately have the product candidates successfully commercialized by us or a commercial partner. We cannot assure you that the results of our ongoing preclinical studies or clinical trials will support or justify the continued development of our product candidate, or that we will receive approval from the FDA, or similar regulatory authorities in other countries, to advance the development of our product candidates.

Our product candidates must satisfy rigorous regulatory standards of safety and efficacy before we can advance or complete their clinical development, or they can be approved for sale. To satisfy these standards, we must engage in expensive and lengthy preclinical studies and clinical trials, develop acceptable manufacturing processes, and obtain regulatory approval. Despite these efforts, our product candidates may not:

We cannot assure you that the results of late-stage clinical trials will be favorable enough to support the continued development of our product candidates. A number of companies in the pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical industries have experienced significant delays, setbacks and failures in all stages of development, including late-stage clinical trials, even after achieving promising results in preclinical testing or early-stage clinical trials. Accordingly, results from completed preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials of our product candidates may not be predictive of the results we may obtain in later-stage trials. Furthermore, even if the data collected from preclinical studies and clinical trials involving our product candidates demonstrate a favorable safety and efficacy profile, such results may not be sufficient to support the submission of an NDA to obtain regulatory approval from the FDA in the U.S., or other similar regulatory agencies in other jurisdictions, which is required to market and sell the product.

Our product candidates will require significant additional research and development efforts, the commitment of substantial financial resources, and regulatory approvals prior to advancing into further clinical development or being commercialized by us or collaborators. We cannot assure you that our product candidates will successfully progress through the drug development process or will result in commercially viable products. We do not expect our product candidates to be commercialized by us or collaborators for at least several years.

Our product candidates may exhibit undesirable side effects when used alone or in combination with other approved pharmaceutical products or investigational new drugs, which may delay or preclude further development or regulatory approval or limit their use if approved.

Throughout the drug development process, we must continually demonstrate the safety and tolerability of our product candidates to obtain regulatory approval to further advance clinical development or to market them. Even if our product candidates demonstrate clinical efficacy, any unacceptable adverse side effects or toxicities, when administered alone or in the presence of other pharmaceutical products, which can arise at any stage of development, may outweigh potential benefits. In preclinical studies and clinical trials we have conducted to date, our product candidate’s tolerability profile is based on studies and trials that have involved a small number of subjects or patients over a limited period of time. We may observe adverse or significant adverse events or drug-drug interactions in future preclinical studies or clinical trial candidates, which could result in the delay or termination of development, prevent regulatory approval, or limit market acceptance if ultimately approved.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our existing stockholders, including purchasers of common stock in this offering, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our product candidates on unfavorable terms to us.

We may seek additional capital through a variety of means, including through public or private equity, debt financings or other sources, including up-front payments and milestone payments from strategic collaborations. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt or equity securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect your rights as a stockholder. Such financing may result in dilution to stockholders, imposition of debt covenants, increased fixed payment obligations or other restrictions that may affect our business. If we raise additional funds through up-front payments or milestone payments pursuant to strategic collaborations with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our product candidates or grant licenses on terms that are not favorable to us. In addition, we may seek additional capital due to favorable market conditions or strategic considerations even if we believe we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans.

If the results of preclinical studies or clinical trials for our product candidates, including those that are subject to existing or future license or collaboration agreements, are unfavorable or delayed, we could be delayed or precluded from the further development or commercialization of our product candidates, which could materially harm our business.

In order to further advance the development of, and ultimately receive regulatory approval to sell, our product candidates, we must conduct extensive preclinical studies and clinical trials to demonstrate their safety and efficacy to the satisfaction of the FDA or similar regulatory authorities in other countries, as the case may be. Preclinical studies and clinical trials are expensive, complex, can take many years to complete, and have highly uncertain outcomes. Delays, setbacks, or failures can occur at any time, or in any phase of preclinical or clinical testing, and can result from concerns about safety or toxicity, a lack of demonstrated efficacy or superior efficacy over other similar products that have been approved for sale or are in more advanced stages of development, poor study or trial design, and issues related to the formulation or manufacturing process of the materials used to conduct the trials. The results of prior preclinical studies or clinical trials are not necessarily predictive of the results we may observe in later stage clinical trials. In many cases, product candidates in clinical development may fail to show desired safety and efficacy characteristics despite having favorably demonstrated such characteristics in preclinical studies or earlier stage clinical trials.

In addition, we may experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, preclinical studies and the clinical trial process, which could delay or impede our ability to advance the development of, receive regulatory approval for, or commercialize our product candidate, including, but not limited to:

Even if the data collected from preclinical studies or clinical trials involving our product candidates demonstrate a favorable safety and efficacy profile, such results may not be sufficient to support the submission of an NDA to obtain regulatory approval from the FDA in the U.S., or other similar foreign regulatory authorities in foreign jurisdictions, which is required to market and sell the product.

If third party vendors upon whom we intend to rely on to conduct our preclinical studies or clinical trials do not perform or fail to comply with strict regulations, these studies or trials of our product candidate may be delayed, terminated, or fail, or we could incur significant additional expenses, which could materially harm our business.

We have limited resources dedicated to designing, conducting, and managing preclinical studies and clinical trials. We intend to rely on third parties, including clinical research organizations, consultants, and principal investigators, to assist us in designing, managing, monitoring and conducting our preclinical studies and clinical trials. We intend to rely on these vendors and individuals to perform many facets of the drug development process, including certain preclinical studies, the recruitment of sites and patients for participation in our clinical trials, maintenance of good relations with the clinical sites, and ensuring that these sites are conducting our trials in compliance with the trial protocol, including safety monitoring and applicable regulations. If these third parties fail to perform satisfactorily, or do not adequately fulfill their obligations under the terms of our agreements with them, we may not be able to enter into alternative arrangements without undue delay or additional expenditures, and therefore the preclinical studies and clinical trials of our product candidate may be delayed or prove unsuccessful. Further, the FDA, or other similar foreign regulatory authorities, may inspect some of the clinical sites participating in our clinical trials in the U.S., or our third-party vendors’ sites, to determine if our clinical trials are being conducted according to Good Clinical Practices. If we or the FDA determine that our third-party vendors are not in compliance with, or have not conducted our clinical trials according to, applicable regulations we may be forced to delay, repeat, or terminate such clinical trials.

We have limited capacity for recruiting and managing clinical trials, which could impair our timing to initiate or complete clinical trials of our product candidate and materially harm our business.

We have limited capacity to recruit and manage the clinical trials necessary to obtain FDA approval or approval by other regulatory authorities. By contrast, larger pharmaceutical and bio-pharmaceutical companies often have substantial staff with extensive experience in conducting clinical trials with multiple product candidates across multiple indications. In addition, they may have greater financial resources to compete for the same clinical investigators and patients that we are attempting to recruit for our clinical trials. If potential competitors are successful in completing drug development for their product candidates and obtain approval from the FDA, they could limit the demand to participate in clinical trials of our product candidates.

As a result, we may be at a competitive disadvantage that could delay the initiation, recruitment, timing, completion of our clinical trials and obtaining regulatory approvals, if at all, for our product candidates.

We, and our collaborators, if any, must comply with extensive government regulations in order to advance our product candidates through the development process and ultimately obtain and maintain marketing approval for our products in the U.S. and abroad.

The product candidates that we, or our collaborators, are developing or may develop require regulatory approval to advance through clinical development and to ultimately be marketed and sold and are subject to extensive and rigorous domestic and foreign government regulation. In the U.S., the FDA regulates, among other things, the development, testing, manufacture, safety, efficacy, record-keeping, labeling, storage, approval, advertising, promotion, sale, and distribution of pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical products. Our product candidates are also subject to similar regulation by foreign governments to the extent we seek to develop or market them in those countries. We, or our collaborators, must provide the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities, if applicable, with preclinical and clinical data, as well as data supporting an acceptable manufacturing process, that appropriately demonstrate our product candidate’s safety and efficacy before it can be approved for the targeted indications. Our product candidates have not been approved for sale in the U.S. or any foreign market, and we cannot predict whether we or our collaborators will obtain regulatory approval for any product candidates we are developing or plan to develop. The regulatory review and approval process can take many years, is dependent upon the type, complexity, novelty of, and medical need for the product candidate, requires the expenditure of substantial resources, and involves post-marketing surveillance and vigilance and potentially post-marketing studies or Phase 4 clinical trials. In addition, we or our collaborators may encounter delays in, or fail to gain, regulatory approval for our product candidate based upon additional governmental regulation resulting from future legislative, administrative action or changes in FDA’s or other similar foreign regulatory authorities’ policy or interpretation during the period of product development. Delays or failures in obtaining regulatory approval to advance our product candidate through clinical development, and ultimately commercialize them, may:

Furthermore, any regulatory approvals, if granted, may later be withdrawn. If we or our collaborators fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements at any time, or if post-approval safety concerns arise, we or our collaborators may be subject to restrictions or a number of actions, including:

Additionally, at any time we or our collaborators may voluntarily suspend or terminate the preclinical or clinical development of a product candidate, or withdraw any approved product from the market if we believe that it may pose an unacceptable safety risk to patients, or if the product candidate or approved product no longer meets our business objectives. The ability to develop or market a pharmaceutical product outside of the U.S. is contingent upon receiving appropriate authorization from the respective foreign regulatory authorities. Foreign regulatory approval processes typically include many, if not all, of the risks and requirements associated with the FDA regulatory process for drug development and may include additional risks.

Clinical trials involve a lengthy and expensive process with an uncertain outcome, and results of earlier studies and trials may not be predictive of future trial results.

Our product candidates may not prove to be safe and efficacious in clinical trials and may not meet all the applicable regulatory requirements needed to receive regulatory approval. In order to receive regulatory approval for the commercialization of our product candidates, we must conduct, at our own expense, extensive preclinical testing and clinical trials to demonstrate safety and efficacy of our product candidate for the intended indication of use. Clinical testing is expensive, can take many years to complete, if at all, and its outcome is uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process.

The results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of new drugs do not necessarily predict the results of later-stage clinical trials. The design of our clinical trials is based on many assumptions about the expected effects of our product candidate, and if those assumptions are incorrect, they may not produce statistically significant results. Preliminary results may not be confirmed on full analysis of the detailed results of a clinical trial. Product candidates in later stages of clinical development may fail to show safety and efficacy sufficient to support intended use claims despite having progressed through earlier clinical testing. The data collected from clinical trials of our product candidate may not be sufficient to support the filing of an NDA or to obtain regulatory approval in the United States or elsewhere. Because of the uncertainties associated with drug development and regulatory approval, we cannot determine if or when we will have an approved product for commercialization or achieve sales or profits.

Delays in clinical testing could result in increased costs to us and delay our ability to generate revenue.

We may experience delays in clinical testing of our product candidate. We do not know whether planned clinical trials will begin on time, will need to be redesigned or will be completed on schedule, if at all. Clinical trials can be delayed for a variety of reasons, including pandemics, delays in obtaining regulatory approval to commence a clinical trial, in securing clinical trial agreements with prospective sites with acceptable terms, in obtaining IRB approval to conduct a clinical trial at a prospective site, in recruiting patients to participate in a clinical trial or in obtaining sufficient supplies of clinical trial materials, including RenovoCath. Many factors affect patient enrollment, including the size of the patient population, the proximity of patients to clinical sites, the eligibility criteria for the clinical trial, the existing body of safety and efficacy data with respect to the study drug, competing clinical trials, new drugs approved for the conditions we are investigating and health epidemics such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical investigators will need to decide whether to offer their patients enrollment in clinical trials of our product candidate versus treating these patients with commercially available drugs that have established safety and efficacy profiles. Any delays in completing our clinical trials will increase our costs, slow down our product development, timeliness and approval process and delay our ability to generate revenue.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable, and if we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, our business will be substantially harmed.

The time required to obtain approval by the FDA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any product candidate and it is possible that our existing product candidate or any product candidate we may seek to develop in the future will ever obtain regulatory approval may fail to receive regulatory approval.

Our product candidate could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

This lengthy approval process as well as the unpredictability of future clinical trial results may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates, which would significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects.

In addition, even if we were to obtain approval, regulatory authorities may approve our product candidates for fewer or more limited indications than we request, may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials, or may approve a product candidate with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate. Any of the foregoing scenarios could materially harm the commercial prospects for our product candidates.

We have not previously submitted an NDA to the FDA, nor similar drug approval filings to comparable foreign authorities, for our product candidates, and we cannot be certain that our product candidates will be successful in clinical trials or receive regulatory approval. Further, our product candidates may not receive regulatory approval even if they are successful in clinical trials. If we do not receive regulatory approvals for our product candidates, we may not be able to continue our operations. Even if we successfully obtain regulatory approvals to market one or more of our product candidates, our revenues will be dependent on many factors including the size of the markets in the territories for which we gain regulatory approval and have commercial rights. If the markets for patients that we are targeting for our product candidates are not as significant as we estimate, we may not generate significant revenues from sales of such products, if approved.

We plan to seek regulatory approval and to commercialize our product candidates, directly or with collaborators in the United States, the European Union, and other foreign countries which we have not yet identified. While the scope of regulatory approval is similar in other countries, to obtain separate regulatory approval in many other countries we must comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of such countries regarding safety and efficacy and governing, among other things, clinical trials and commercial sales, pricing, and distribution of our product candidates, and we cannot predict success in these jurisdictions.

We may be required to suspend or discontinue clinical trials due to unexpected side effects or other safety risks that could preclude approval of our product candidates.

Our clinical trials may be suspended at any time for a number of reasons. For example, we may voluntarily suspend or terminate our clinical trials if at any time we believe that they present an unacceptable risk to the clinical trial patients. In addition, the FDA or other regulatory agencies may order the temporary or permanent discontinuation of our clinical trials at any time if they believe that the clinical trials are not being conducted in accordance with applicable regulatory requirements or that they present an unacceptable safety risk to the clinical trial patients.

Administering our product candidates to humans may produce undesirable side effects. These side effects could interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials of our product candidates and could result in the FDA or other regulatory authorities denying further development or approval of our product candidate for any or all targeted indications. Ultimately, our product candidates may prove to be unsafe for human use. Moreover, we could be subject to significant liability if any volunteer or patient suffers, or appears to suffer, adverse health effects as a result of participating in our clinical trials.

If we fail to comply with healthcare regulations, we could face substantial enforcement actions, including civil and criminal penalties and our business, operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

As a developer of pharmaceuticals, certain federal and state healthcare laws and regulations pertaining to fraud and abuse, false claims and patients’ privacy rights are and will be applicable to our business. We could be subject to healthcare fraud and abuse laws and patient privacy laws of both the federal government and the states in which we conduct our business. The laws include:

If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any governmental regulations that apply to us, we may be subject to penalties, including civil and criminal penalties, damages, fines, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. Any penalties, damages, fines, curtailment or restructuring of our operations could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our financial results. Although compliance programs can mitigate the risk of investigation and prosecution for violations of these laws, the risks cannot be entirely eliminated. Any action against us for violation of these laws, even if we successfully defend against it, could cause us to incur significant legal expenses and divert management’s attention from the operation of our business. Moreover, achieving and sustaining compliance with applicable federal and state privacy, security and fraud laws may prove costly.

If we are unable to satisfy regulatory requirements, we may not be able to commercialize our product candidate.

We need FDA approval prior to marketing our product candidates in the United States. If we fail to obtain FDA approval to market our product candidates, we will be unable to sell our product candidates in the United States and we will not generate any revenue.

The FDA’s review and approval process, including among other things, evaluation of preclinical studies and clinical trials of a product candidate as well as the manufacturing process and facility, is lengthy, expensive, and uncertain. To receive approval, we must, among other things, demonstrate with substantial evidence from well-designed and well-controlled pre-clinical testing and clinical trials that the product candidates are both safe and effective for each indication for which approval is sought. Satisfaction of these requirements typically takes several years, and the time needed to satisfy them may vary substantially, based on the type, complexity and novelty of the pharmaceutical product. We cannot predict if or when we will submit an NDA for approval for our product candidate currently under development. Any approvals we may obtain may not cover all of the clinical indications for which we are seeking approval or may contain significant limitations on the conditions of use.

The FDA has substantial discretion in the NDA review process and may either refuse to file our NDA for substantive review or may decide that our data is insufficient to support approval of our product candidates for the claimed intended uses. Following any regulatory approval of our product candidates, we will be subject to continuing regulatory obligations such as safety reporting, required and additional post marketing obligations, and regulatory oversight of promotion and marketing. Even if we receive regulatory approvals, the FDA may subsequently seek to withdraw approval of our NDA if we determine that new data or a reevaluation of existing data show the product is unsafe for use under the conditions of use upon the basis of which the NDA was approved, or based on new evidence of adverse effects or adverse clinical experience, or upon other new information. If the FDA does not file or approve our NDA or withdraws approval of our NDA, the FDA may require that we conduct additional clinical trials, preclinical or manufacturing studies and submit that data before it will reconsider our application. Depending on the extent of these or any other requested studies, approval of any applications that we submit may be delayed by several years, may require us to expend more resources than we have available, or may never be obtained at all. In addition, we have obtained FDA clearance for our RenovoCath delivery system. In the event adverse events arise with respect to the RenovoCath delivery system, the FDA could revoke its clearance which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

We will also be subject to a wide variety of foreign regulations governing the development, manufacture, and marketing of our products to the extent we seek regulatory approval to develop and market our product candidates in a foreign jurisdiction. As of the date hereof we have not identified any foreign jurisdictions which we intend to seek approval from. Whether or not FDA approval has been obtained, approval of a product candidate by the comparable regulatory authorities of foreign countries must still be obtained prior to marketing the product candidate in those countries. The approval process varies, and the time needed to secure approval in any region such as the European Union or in a country with an independent review procedure may be longer or shorter than that required for FDA approval. We cannot assure you that clinical trials conducted in one country will be accepted by other countries or that an approval in one country or region will result in approval elsewhere.

If our product candidates are unable to compete effectively with marketed drugs targeting similar indications as our product candidates, our commercial opportunity will be reduced or eliminated.

We face competition generally from established pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, as well as from academic institutions, government agencies and private and public research institutions. Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Small or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large, established companies. We are aware of a number of companies in Phase 3 clinical trials for the treatment of LAPC including Angiodynamics, Bausch Health, Fibrogen, NovoCure, and SynCore Biotechnology. In addition, we are aware of a number of companies in Phase 1 and Phase 2 clinical trials for the treatment of LAPC including one interventional company, TriSalus Lifesciences. Our commercial opportunity will be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize any products that are safer, more effective, have fewer side effects or are less expensive than our product candidates. These potential competitors compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel, establishing clinical trial sites, and patient enrollment for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies and technology licenses complementary to our programs or advantageous to our business.

If approved and commercialized, RenovoGem would compete with several currently approved prescription therapies for the treatment of LAPC and hilar cholangiocarcinoma. To our knowledge, other potential competitors are in earlier stages of development. If potential competitors are successful in completing drug development for their product candidates and obtain approval from the FDA, they could limit the demand for RenovoGem.

We expect that our ability to compete effectively will depend upon our ability to:

Because we will be competing against significantly larger companies with established track records, we will have to demonstrate that, based on experience, clinical data, side-effect profiles and other factors, our products, if approved, are competitive with other products. If we are unable to compete effectively and differentiate our products from other marketed drugs, we may never generate meaningful revenue.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue one or more product candidates or indications within our product development strategy, which has and may continue to change over time, and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we intend to focus on developing product candidates for specific indications that we identify as most likely to succeed, in terms of their potential both to gain regulatory approval and to achieve commercialization. As a result, we may forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or in other indications with greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future research and development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable product candidates. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing, or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to the product candidate.

If the manufacturers upon whom we rely fail to produce our product candidates, in the volumes that we require on a timely basis, or fail to comply with stringent regulations applicable to pharmaceutical drug manufacturers, we may face delays in the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

We do not currently possess internal manufacturing capacity. We plan to utilize the services of GMP, FDA inspected contract manufacturers to manufacture our clinical supplies. Any curtailment in the availability of gemcitabine, however, could result in production or other delays with consequent adverse effects on us. In addition, because regulatory authorities must generally approve raw material sources for pharmaceutical products, changes in raw material suppliers may result in production delays or higher raw material costs.

We obtain our RenovoCath delivery system from a single source. Gemcitabine is supplied from our clinical sites own pharmacies and used off-label for intra-arterial use within our clinical study. We continue to pursue supply agreements for gemcitabine and our RenovoCath delivery system. We may be required to agree to minimum volume requirements, exclusivity arrangements or other restrictions with the contract manufacturers. We may not be able to enter into long-term agreements on commercially reasonable terms, or at all. If we change or add manufacturers, the FDA and comparable foreign regulators may require approval of the changes. Approval of these changes could require new testing by the manufacturer and compliance inspections to ensure the manufacturer is conforming to all applicable laws and regulations and GMP.

The manufacture of pharmaceutical products requires significant expertise and capital investment, including the development of advanced manufacturing techniques and process controls. Manufacturers of pharmaceutical products may encounter difficulties in production, particularly in scaling up production. These problems include difficulties with production costs and yields, quality control, including stability of the product and quality assurance testing, shortages of qualified personnel, as well as compliance with federal, state, and foreign regulations. In addition, any delay or interruption in the supply of clinical trial supplies could delay the completion of our clinical trials, increase the costs associated with conducting our clinical trials and, depending upon the period of delay, require us to commence new clinical trials at significant additional expense or to terminate a clinical trial.

We will be responsible for ensuring that our future contract manufacturers comply with the GMP requirements of the FDA and other regulatory authorities from which we seek to obtain product approval. These requirements include, among other things, quality control, quality assurance and the maintenance of records and documentation. The approval process for NDAs includes an inspection of the manufacturer’s compliance with GMP requirements. We will be responsible for regularly assessing a contract manufacturer’s compliance with GMP requirements through record reviews and periodic audits and for ensuring that the contract manufacturer takes responsibility and corrective action for any identified deviations. Manufacturers of our product candidates may be unable to comply with these GMP requirements and with other FDA and foreign regulatory requirements, if any.

While we will oversee compliance of our contract manufacturers, ultimately, we will not have control over our manufacturers’ compliance with these regulations and standards. A failure to comply with these requirements may result in fines and civil penalties, suspension of production, suspension or delay in product approval, product seizure or recall, or withdrawal of product approval. If the safety of our product candidates is compromised due to a manufacturers’ failure to adhere to applicable laws or for other reasons, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or successfully commercialize our product candidates, and we may be held liable for any injuries sustained as a result. Any of these factors could cause a delay of clinical trials, regulatory submissions, approvals, or commercialization of RenovoGem or other product candidates, entail higher costs or result in us being unable to effectively commercialize our product candidates. Furthermore, if our manufacturers fail to deliver the required commercial quantities on a timely basis and at commercially reasonable prices, we may be unable to meet demand for any approved products and would lose potential revenues.

We may not be able to manufacture our product candidates in commercial quantities, which would prevent us from commercializing our product candidates.

To date, our product candidates have been manufactured in small quantities for preclinical studies and clinical trials. If our product candidates are approved by the FDA or comparable regulatory authorities in other countries for commercial sale, we will need to manufacture such product candidates in larger quantities. We may not be able to successfully increase the manufacturing capacity for our product candidates in a timely or economic manner, or at all. Significant scale-up of manufacturing may require additional validation studies, which the FDA must review and approve. If we are unable to successfully increase the manufacturing capacity for a product candidate, the clinical trials as well as the regulatory approval or commercial launch of that product candidate may be delayed or there may be a shortage in supply. Our product candidates require precise, high quality manufacturing. Our failure to achieve and maintain these high-quality manufacturing standards in collaboration with our third-party manufacturers, including the incidence of manufacturing errors, could result in patient injury or death, product recalls or withdrawals, delays or failures in product testing or delivery, cost overruns or other problems that could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our product candidates, if approved for sale, may not gain acceptance among physicians, patients, and the medical community, thereby limiting our potential to generate revenues.

If our product candidates are approved for commercial sale by the FDA or other regulatory authorities, the degree of market acceptance of any approved product by physicians, healthcare professionals and third-party payors and our profitability and growth will depend on a number of factors, including:

If any product candidate that we develop does not provide a treatment regimen that is as beneficial as, or is perceived as being as beneficial as, the current standard of care or otherwise does not provide patient benefit, that product candidate, if approved for commercial sale by the FDA or other regulatory authorities, likely will not achieve market acceptance. Our ability to effectively promote and sell any approved products will also depend on pricing and cost-effectiveness, including our ability to produce a product at a competitive price and our ability to obtain sufficient third-party coverage or reimbursement. If any product candidate is approved but does not achieve an adequate level of acceptance by physicians, patients and third-party payors, our ability to generate revenues from that product would be substantially reduced. In addition, our efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payors on the benefits of our product candidates may require significant resources, may be constrained by FDA rules and policies on product promotion, and may never be successful.

Guidelines and recommendations published by various organizations can impact the use of our products.

Government agencies promulgate regulations and guidelines directly applicable to us and to our product. In addition, professional societies, practice management groups, private health and science foundations and organizations involved in various diseases from time to time may also publish guidelines or recommendations to the healthcare and patient communities. Recommendations of government agencies or these other groups or organizations may relate to such matters as usage, dosage, route of administration and use of concomitant therapies. Recommendations or guidelines suggesting the reduced use of our products or the use of competitive or alternative products that are followed by patients and healthcare providers could result in decreased use of our proposed products.

If third-party contract manufacturers upon whom we rely to formulate and manufacture our product candidates do not perform, fail to manufacture according to our specifications or fail to comply with strict regulations, our preclinical studies or clinical trials could be adversely affected and the development of our product candidate could be delayed or terminated or we could incur significant additional expenses.

We do not own or operate any manufacturing facilities. We intend to rely on GMP, FDA inspected third-party contractors, at least for the foreseeable future, to formulate and manufacture these preclinical and clinical materials. Our reliance on third-party contract manufacturers exposes us to a number of risks, any of which could delay or prevent the completion of our preclinical studies or clinical trials, or the regulatory approval or commercialization of our product candidate, result in higher costs, or deprive us of potential product revenues. Some of these risks include:

In the event that we need to change our third-party contract manufacturers, our preclinical studies, clinical trials or the commercialization of our product candidate could be delayed, adversely affected or terminated, or such a change may result in significantly higher costs.

Due to regulatory restrictions inherent in an IND or NDA, or for economic reasons, various steps in the manufacture of our product candidate may need to be sole-sourced. We currently obtain our RenovoCath delivery system from a single supplier. In accordance with cGMP regulations, changing manufacturers may require the re-validation of manufacturing processes and procedures, and may require further preclinical studies or clinical trials to show comparability between the materials produced by different manufacturers. Changing our current or future contract manufacturers may be difficult for us and could be costly, which could result in our inability to manufacture our product candidate for an extended period of time and therefore a delay in the development of our product candidate. Further, in order to maintain our development time lines in the event of a change in our third-party contract manufacturer, we may incur significantly higher costs to manufacture our product candidate.

We currently do not have any internal drug discovery capabilities, and therefore we are dependent on identifying drugs that are off patent or on in-licensing or acquiring development programs from third parties in order to obtain additional product candidates.

If in the future we decide to further expand our pipeline, we will be dependent on identifying drugs that are off patent or on in-licensing or acquiring product candidates as we do not have significant internal discovery capabilities at this time. We may face substantial competition from other biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies, many of which may have greater resources then we have, in obtaining in-licensing, sponsored research or acquisition opportunities. In-licensing or acquisition opportunities may not be available to us on terms we find acceptable, if at all. In-licensed compounds that appear promising in research or in preclinical studies may fail to progress into further preclinical studies or clinical trials.

If a product liability claim is successfully brought against us for uninsured liabilities, or such claim exceeds our insurance coverage, we could be forced to pay substantial damage awards that could materially harm our business.

The use of any of our existing or future product candidates in clinical trials and the sale of any approved pharmaceutical products may expose us to significant product liability claims. We have product liability insurance coverage for our proposed clinical trials; however, such insurance coverage may not protect us against any or all of the product liability claims that may be brought against us now or in the future. We may not be able to acquire or maintain adequate product liability insurance coverage at a commercially reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts or scope to protect us against potential losses. In the event a product liability claim is brought against us, we may be required to pay legal and other expenses to defend the claim, as well as uncovered damage awards resulting from a claim brought successfully against us. In the event our product candidate is approved for sale by the FDA and commercialized, we may need to substantially increase the amount of our product liability coverage. Defending any product liability claim or claims could require us to expend significant financial and managerial resources, which could have an adverse effect on our business.

We may delay or terminate the development of our product candidates at any time if we believe the perceived market or commercial opportunity does not justify further investment, which could materially harm our business.

Even though the results of preclinical studies and clinical trials that have been conducted or may be conducted in the future may support further development of our product candidates, we may delay, suspend or terminate the future development of a product candidate at any time for strategic, business, financial or other reasons, including the determination or belief that the emerging profile of the product candidate is such that it may not receive FDA approval, gain meaningful market acceptance, generate a significant return to shareholders, or otherwise provide any competitive advantages in its intended indication or market.

Our future success depends on our ability to retain our key personnel and to attract, retain and motivate qualified personnel.

We are highly dependent on the development, regulatory, commercialization, and business development expertise of Shaun Bagai, our Chief Executive Officer, as well as the other principal members of our management, scientific and clinical teams. Although we have employment agreements, offer letters or consulting agreements with our executive officers, these agreements do not prevent them from terminating their services at any time.

If we lose one or more of our executive officers or key employees, our ability to implement our business strategy successfully could be seriously harmed. Furthermore, replacing executive officers and key employees may be difficult and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience required to successfully develop product candidates, gain regulatory approval, and commercialize new products. Competition to hire from this limited pool is intense, and we may be unable to hire, train, retain or motivate these additional key personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for similar personnel. We also experience competition for the hiring of scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions. In addition, we rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our research and development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be engaged by entities other than us and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with other entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain highly qualified personnel, our ability to develop and commercialize product candidates will be limited.

We will need to increase the size of our organization, and we may experience difficulties in managing growth.

We are a small company with 78 employees as of JulyAugust 15, 2021. Future growth of our company will impose significant additional responsibilities on members of management, including the need to identify, attract, retain, motivate and integrate highly skilled personnel. We may increase the number of employees in the future depending on the progress of our development and commercialization of our product candidates. Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize our product candidate and to compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to manage any future growth effectively. To that end, we must be able to:

There is no guarantee that we will be able to accomplish these tasks, and our failure to accomplish any of them could materially adversely affect our business, prospects, and financial condition.

Business disruptions could seriously harm future revenue and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses.

Our operations, and those of our third-party manufacturers, contract research organizations, or CROs, and other contractors and consultants, could be subject to earthquakes, power shortages, telecommunications failures, water shortages, floods, hurricanes, typhoons, fires, extreme weather conditions, medical epidemics and other natural or man-made disasters or business interruptions, for which we are predominantly self-insured. The occurrence of any of these business disruptions could seriously harm our operations and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses.

Our corporate headquarters are located in Silicon Valley, California, an area prone to wildfires and earthquakes. These and other natural disasters could severely disrupt our operations, and have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. If a natural disaster, power outage or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as the manufacturing facilities of our third-party contract manufacturers, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. Any disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place may prove inadequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the limited nature of our disaster recovery and business continuity plans, which, could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Security threats to our information technology infrastructure and/or our physical buildings could expose us to liability and damage our reputation and business.

It is essential to our business strategy that our and our vendors, partners, clinical trial sites, and third-party providers’ technology and network infrastructure and physical buildings remain secure and are perceived by our customers and corporate partners to be secure. Despite security measures, however, any network infrastructure may be vulnerable to cyber-attacks by hackers and other security threats. We may face cyber-attacks that attempt to penetrate our network security, sabotage, or otherwise disable our research and development activities, products and services, misappropriate our or our customers’ and partners’ proprietary information, which may include personally identifiable information, or cause interruptions of our internal systems and services. Despite security measures, we also cannot guarantee security of our physical buildings. Physical building penetration or any cyber-attacks could negatively affect our reputation, damage our network infrastructure and our ability to deploy our products and services, harm our relationship with customers and partners that are affected, and expose us to financial liability.

Additionally, there are a number of state, federal, and international laws protecting the privacy and security of health information and personal data. For example, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (“HIPAA”) imposes limitations on the use and disclosure of an individual’s healthcare information by healthcare providers, healthcare clearinghouses, and health insurance plans, or, collectively, covered entities, and also grants individuals rights with respect to their health information. HIPAA also imposes compliance obligations and corresponding penalties for non-compliance on individuals and entities that provide services to healthcare providers and other covered entities. As part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (“ARRA”), the privacy and security provisions of HIPAA were amended. ARRA also made significant increases in the penalties for improper use or disclosure of an individual’s health information under HIPAA and extended enforcement authority to state attorneys general. As amended by ARRA and subsequently by the final omnibus rule adopted in 2013, HIPAA also imposes notification requirements on covered entities in the event that certain health information has been inappropriately accessed or disclosed: notification requirements to individuals, federal regulators, and in some cases, notification to local and national media. Notification is not required under HIPAA if the health information that is improperly used or disclosed is deemed secured in accordance with encryption or other standards developed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Most states have laws requiring notification of affected individuals and/or state regulators in the event of a breach of personal information, which is a broader class of information than the health information protected by HIPAA. Many state laws impose significant data security requirements, such as encryption or mandatory contractual terms, to ensure ongoing protection of personal information. Activities outside of the U.S. implicate local and national data protection standards, impose additional compliance requirements, and generate additional risks of enforcement for non-compliance. We may be required to expend significant capital and other resources to ensure ongoing compliance with applicable privacy and data security laws, to protect against security breaches and hackers or to alleviate problems caused by such breaches.

We and our third-party contract manufacturers must comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, and failure to comply with these laws and regulations could expose us to significant costs or liabilities.

We and our third-party manufacturers are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the use, generation, manufacture, distribution, storage, handling, treatment, remediation and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. Hazardous chemicals, including flammable and biological materials, are involved in certain aspects of our business, and we cannot eliminate the risk of injury or contamination from the use, generation, manufacture, distribution, storage, handling, treatment or disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. In the event of contamination or injury, or failure to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could be held liable for any resulting damages and any such liability could exceed our assets and resources. We could also incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties for failure to comply with such laws and regulations.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. We do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us in connection with our storage or disposal of biological, hazardous or radioactive materials.

Environmental, health and safety laws and regulations are becoming increasingly more stringent. We may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Our failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Further, with respect to the operations of our third-party contract manufacturers, it is possible that if they fail to operate in compliance with applicable environmental, health and safety laws and regulations or properly dispose of wastes associated with our products, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, suffer reputational harm or experience a disruption in the manufacture and supply of our product candidates or products.

A variety of risks associated with operating internationally could materially adversely affect our business.

Doing business internationally involves a number of risks, including but not limited to:

Any of these factors could significantly harm any current or future international operations and, consequently, our results of operations.

General economic or business conditions may have a negative impact on our business.

Continuing concerns over U.S. healthcare reform legislation and energy costs, geopolitical issues, the availability and cost of credit and government stimulus programs in the U.S. and other countries have contributed to increased volatility. If the economic climate deteriorates or is poor, our business, as well as the financial condition of our suppliers and our third-party payors, could be negatively impacted, which could materially adversely affect our business, prospects and financial condition.

Healthcare reform measures could adversely affect our business.

In the United States and foreign jurisdictions, there have been, and continue to be, a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes to the healthcare system that could affect our future results of operations. In particular, there have been and continue to be a number of initiatives at the U.S. federal and state levels that seek to reduce healthcare costs. In 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (the “PPACA”) was enacted, which includes measures to significantly change the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers. Among the provisions of the PPACA of greatest importance to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry are the following:

Some of the provisions of the PPACA have yet to be implemented, and there have been legal and political challenges to certain aspects of the PPACA. During President Trump’s administration, he signed two executive orders and other directives designed to delay, circumvent, or loosen certain requirements mandated by the PPACA. Concurrently, Congress has considered legislation that would repeal or repeal and replace all or part of the PPACA. While Congress has not passed repeal legislation, the PPACA includes a provision repealing, effective January 1, 2019, the tax-based shared responsibility payment imposed by the PPACA on certain individuals who fail to maintain qualifying health coverage for all or part of a year that is commonly referred to as the “individual mandate”. Congress may consider other legislation to repeal or replace elements of the PPACA.

Many of the details regarding the implementation of the PPACA are yet to be determined, and at this time, the full effect that the PPACA would have on our business remains unclear.

Individual states have become increasingly aggressive in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access, and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Legally mandated price controls on payment amounts by third-party payors or other restrictions could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, regional healthcare authorities and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. This could reduce ultimate demand for our products or put pressure on our product pricing, which could negatively affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

In addition, given recent federal and state government initiatives directed at lowering the total cost of healthcare, Congress and state legislatures will likely continue to focus on healthcare reform, the cost of prescription drugs and biologics and the reform of the Medicare and Medicaid programs. While we cannot predict the full outcome of any such legislation, it may result in decreased reimbursement for drugs and biologics, which may further exacerbate industry-wide pressure to reduce prescription drug prices. This could harm our ability to generate revenues. Increases in importation or re-importation of pharmaceutical products from foreign countries into the United States could put competitive pressure on our ability to profitably price our products, which, in turn, could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. We might elect not to seek approval for or market our products in foreign jurisdictions in order to minimize the risk of re-importation, which could also reduce the revenue we generate from product sales. It is also possible that other legislative proposals having similar effects will be adopted.

Furthermore, regulatory authorities’ assessment of the data and results required to demonstrate safety and efficacy can change over time and can be affected by many factors, such as the emergence of new information, including on other products, changing policies and agency funding, staffing and leadership. We cannot be sure whether future changes to the regulatory environment will be favorable or unfavorable to our business prospects. For example, average review times at the FDA for marketing approval applications can be affected by a variety of factors, including budget and funding levels and statutory, regulatory and policy changes.

The outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease, COVID-19, could materially adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition, including our clinical trials.

In January 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak of COVID-19 as a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern,” which continues to spread throughout the world and has adversely impacted global commercial activity and contributed to significant volatility in financial markets. The COVID-19 outbreak and government responses are creating disruption in global supply chains and adversely impacting many industries. The outbreak could have a continued material adverse impact on economic and market conditions. We continue to monitor the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak closely. The extent to which the COVID-19 outbreak will impact our operations or financial results is uncertain.

The outbreak and government measures taken in response have also had a significant impact, both direct and indirect, on businesses and commerce, as worker shortages have occurred; supply chains have been disrupted; activity at facilities and production have been suspended; and demand for certain goods and services, such as medical services and supplies, has spiked, while demand for other goods and services, such as travel, has fallen. While the extent of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business and financial results is uncertain, a continued and prolonged public health crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, we may experience disruptions that could severely impact our business and clinical trials, including:

We may be required to develop and implement additional clinical trial policies and procedures designed to help protect subjects from the COVID-19 virus. For example, in March 2020, the FDA issued guidance, which FDA subsequently updated, on conducting clinical trials during the pandemic, which describes a number of considerations for sponsors of clinical trials impacted by the pandemic, including the requirement to include in the clinical trial report contingency measures implemented to manage the trial, and any disruption of the trial as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; a list of all subjects affected by the COVID-19 pandemic related study disruption by unique subject identifier and by investigational site and a description of how the individual’s participation was altered; and analyses and corresponding discussions that address the impact of implemented contingency measures (e.g., participant discontinuation from investigational product and/or study, alternative procedures used to collect critical safety and/or efficacy data) on the safety and efficacy results reported for the trial.

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to evolve rapidly, with the status of operations and government restrictions evolving weekly. The extent to which the outbreak impacts our business and clinical trials will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence, such as the duration of the pandemic, travel restrictions and social distancing in the United States and other countries, business closures or business disruptions and the effectiveness of actions taken in the United States and other countries to contain and treat the disease.

The ultimate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our business operations is highly uncertain and subject to change and will depend on future developments, which cannot be accurately predicted, including the duration of the pandemic, the ultimate geographic spread of the disease, additional or modified government actions, new information that will emerge concerning the severity and impact of COVID-19 and the actions taken to contain COVID-19, including vaccination efforts, or address its impact in the short and long term, among others. We do not yet know the full extent of potential delays or impacts on our business, our clinical trials, our research programs, healthcare systems or the global economy. We will continue to monitor the situation closely.

In addition, our business could be materially adversely affected by other business disruptions to us or our third-party providers that could materially adversely affect our potential future revenue and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses. Our operations, and those of our CROs, third party manufacturers, and other contractors, consultants and third parties could be subject to other global pandemics, earthquakes, power shortages, telecommunications failures, water shortages, floods, hurricanes, typhoons, fires, extreme weather conditions, medical epidemics and other natural or man-made disasters or business interruptions, for which we are predominantly self-insured. The occurrence of any of these business disruptions could materially adversely affect our operations and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses. We rely on third-party manufacturers to produce and process our product candidate. Our ability to obtain clinical supplies of our product candidates could be disrupted if the operations of these suppliers are affected by a man-made or natural disaster or other business interruption.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property

If we are unable to protect our intellectual property effectively, we may be unable to prevent third parties from using our technologies, which would impair our competitive advantage.

We rely on patent protection as well as a combination of trademark, copyright and trade secret protection, and other contractual restrictions, to protect our proprietary technologies, all of which provide limited protection and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep any competitive advantage. We may not be successful in defending challenges made in connection with our patents and patent applications. If we fail to protect our intellectual property, we will be unable to prevent third parties from using our technologies and they will be able to compete more effectively against us.

In addition to our patents, we rely on contractual restrictions to protect our proprietary technology. We require our employees and third parties to sign confidentiality agreements and our employees are also required to sign agreements assigning to us all intellectual property arising from their work for us. Nevertheless, we cannot guarantee that these measures will be effective in protecting our intellectual property rights. Any failure to protect our intellectual property rights could materially adversely affect our business, prospects and financial condition.

Our currently pending or future patent applications may not result in issued patents and any patents issued to us may be challenged, invalidated, or held unenforceable. Furthermore, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the invention claimed in our issued patents or pending patent applications in the U.S., or that we were the first to file for protection of the inventions claimed in our foreign issued patents or pending patent applications. In addition, there are numerous recent changes to the patent laws and proposed changes to the rules of the USPTO, which may have a significant impact on our ability to protect our technology and enforce our intellectual property rights. For example, in September 2011, the U.S. enacted sweeping changes to the U.S. patent system under the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, including changes that transitioned the U.S. from a “first-to-invent” system to a “first-to-file” system and alter the processes for challenging issued patents. These changes could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents. In addition, we may become subject to interference proceedings conducted in the patent and trademark offices of various countries to determine our entitlement to patents, and these proceedings may conclude that other patents or patent applications have priority over our patents or patent applications. It is also possible that a competitor may successfully challenge our patents through various proceedings and those challenges may result in the elimination or narrowing of our patents, and therefore reduce our patent protection. Accordingly, rights under any of our issued patents, patent applications or future patents may not provide us with commercially meaningful protection for our products or afford us a commercial advantage against our competitors or their competitive products or processes.

If our trademarks and trade names are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our markets of interest and our business may be adversely affected.

Our unregistered trademarks or trade names may be challenged, infringed, circumvented, or declared generic or determined to be infringing on other marks. We may not be able to protect our rights to these trademarks and trade names, which we need to build name recognition among potential collaborators or customers in our markets of interest. At times, competitors may adopt trade names or trademarks similar to ours, thereby impeding our ability to build brand identity and possibly leading to market confusion. In addition, there could be potential trade name or trademark infringement claims brought by owners of other registered trademarks or trademarks that incorporate variations of our unregistered trademarks or trade names. Over the long term, if we are unable to successfully register our trademarks and trade names and establish name recognition based on our trademarks and trade names, then we may not be able to compete effectively, and our business may be adversely affected. Our efforts to enforce or protect our proprietary rights related to trademarks, trade secrets, domain names, copyrights or other intellectual property may be ineffective and could result in substantial costs and diversion of resources and could adversely impact our financial condition or results of operations.

The patents issued to us may not be broad enough to provide any meaningful protection, one or more of our competitors may develop more effective technologies, designs or methods without infringing our intellectual property rights and one or more of our competitors may design around our proprietary technologies.

If we are not able to protect our proprietary technology, trade secrets and know-how, our competitors may use our inventions to develop competing products. Our patents may not protect us against our competitors, and patent litigation is very expensive. We may not have sufficient cash available to pursue any patent litigation to its conclusion because we currently do not generate revenues other than licensing, milestone and royalty income.

We cannot rely solely on our current patents to be successful. The standards that the USPTO and foreign patent offices use to grant patents, and the standards that U.S. and foreign courts use to interpret patents, are not the same, are not always applied predictably or uniformly and can change, particularly as new technologies develop. As such, the degree of patent protection obtained in the U.S. may differ substantially from that obtained in various foreign countries.

We cannot be certain of the level of protection, if any, that will be provided by our patents if they are challenged in court, where our competitors may raise defenses such as invalidity, unenforceability, or possession of a valid license. In addition, the type and extent of any patent claims that may be issued to us in the future are uncertain. Any patents that are issued may not contain claims that will permit us to stop competitors from using similar technology.

We may incur substantial costs as a result of litigation or other proceedings relating to patent and other intellectual property rights.

Third parties may challenge the validity, inventorship or ownership of our patents and other intellectual property rights, resulting in costly litigation or other time-consuming and expensive proceedings, which could deprive us of valuable rights. If we become involved in any intellectual property litigation, interference or other judicial or administrative proceedings, we will incur substantial expenses and the attention of our technical and management personnel will be diverted. An adverse determination may subject us to significant liabilities or require us to seek licenses that may not be available from third parties on commercially favorable terms, if at all. Further, if such claims are proven valid, through litigation or otherwise, we may be required to pay substantial monetary damages, which can be tripled if the infringement is deemed willful, or be required to discontinue or significantly delay development, marketing, selling and licensing of the affected products and intellectual property rights.

Our competitors may have filed, and may in the future file, patent applications covering technology similar to ours. Any such patent application may have priority over our patent applications and could further require us to obtain rights to issued patents covering such technologies. There may be third-party patents, patent applications and other intellectual property relevant to our potential products that may block or compete with our potential products or processes. If another party has filed a U.S. patent application on inventions similar to ours, we may have to participate in an interference proceeding declared by the USPTO to determine priority of invention in the U.S. The costs of these proceedings could be substantial, and it is possible that such efforts would be unsuccessful, resulting in a loss of our U.S. patent position with respect to such inventions. In addition, we cannot assure you that we would prevail in any of these suits or that the damages or other remedies that we are ordered to pay, if any, would not be substantial. Claims of intellectual property infringement, misappropriation or other violations against us may require us to enter into royalty or license agreements with third parties that may not be available on acceptable terms, if at all. We may also be subject to injunctions against the further development and use of our technology, which could materially adversely affect our business, prospects and financial condition.

Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation more effectively than we can because they have substantially greater resources. In addition, any uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of any litigation could materially adversely affect our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our operations.

Obtaining and maintaining patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees on any issued patent are due to be paid to the USPTO and foreign patent agencies in several stages over the lifetime of the patent. The USPTO and various foreign governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other provisions during the patent application process and following the issuance of a patent. While an inadvertent lapse can in many cases be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. Noncompliance events that could result in abandonment or lapse of a patent or patent application include, but are not limited to, failure to respond to official actions within prescribed time limits, non-payment of fees and failure to properly legalize and submit formal documents. In certain circumstances, even inadvertent noncompliance events may permanently and irrevocably jeopardize patent rights. In such an event, our competitors might be able to enter the market, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

We rely on confidentiality agreements to protect our trade secrets. If these agreements are breached by our employees or other parties, our trade secrets may become known to our competitors.

We rely on trade secrets which we seek to protect through confidentiality agreements with our employees and other parties. If these agreements are breached, our competitors may obtain and use our trade secrets to gain a competitive advantage over us. We may not have any remedies against our competitors and any remedies that may be available to us may not be adequate to protect our business or compensate us for the damaging disclosure. In addition, we may have to expend resources to protect our interests from possible infringement by others.

Risks Related to this Offering and Our Common Stock

Our 2020 Convertible Notes and 2021 Convertible Notes automatically convert at the closing of this offering at a discount to the public offering price of the Units, all of which could negatively impact trading in our securities. 

In March 2020, we completed the offering of $3.0 million principal amount of 2020 Convertible Notes that provided for the automatic conversion into shares of our common stock and warrants at the closing of this offering at a 20% discount to the public offering price of the Units. In April 2021, we completed the offering of $2.0 million of 2021 Convertible Notes that provided for the automatic conversion into shares of our common stock and warrants at the closing of this offering at a 12.5% discount to the public offering price of the Units. As a result, the investors in this offering will experience immediate dilution when the 2020 Convertible Notes and 2021 Convertible Notes are automatically converted into shares of our common stock and warrants in this offering. We estimate that approximately 336,769404,123 shares and warrants to purchase 252,571404,123 shares will be issuable upon conversion of the 2020 Convertible Notes based on a $9.60$8.00 conversion price (assuming an initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit (the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus)) and taking into account accrued interest through August 15, 2021. We estimate that approximately 193,977232,537 shares and warrants to purchase 145,330232,537 shares will be issuable upon conversion of the 2021 Convertible Notes based on a $10.50$8.75 conversion price (assuming an initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit (the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus)) and taking into account interest earned through August 15, 2021. The automatic conversion of the 2020 Convertible Notes and 2021 Convertible Notes into shares of our common stock and warrants in this offering will be dilutive to our holders and could negatively impact the trading market and price of our common stock following the offering.

No active trading market for our common stock currently exists, and an active trading market may not develop.

Prior to this offering, there has not been an active trading market for our common stock. If an active trading market for our common stock does not develop following this offering, you may not be able to sell your shares quickly or at the market price. Our ability to raise capital to continue to fund operations by selling shares of our common stock and our ability to acquire other companies or technologies by using shares of our common stock as consideration may also be impaired. The initial public offering price of our common stock will be determined by negotiations between us and the underwriters and may not be indicative of the market prices of our common stock that will prevail in the trading market.

The market price of our common stock may be volatile and fluctuate substantially, which could result in substantial losses for purchasers of our common stock in this offering.

The market price of our common stock is likely to be highly volatile and may be subject to wide fluctuations in response to a variety of factors, including the following:

In addition, the stock markets have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have affected and continue to affect the market prices of equity securities of many companies. These fluctuations have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of those companies. Broad market and industry factors, as well as general economic, political, regulatory and market conditions, may negatively affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance. The market price of our common stock may decline below the initial public offering price, and you may lose some or all of your investment. In particular, stock markets have experienced extreme volatility due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and investor concerns and uncertainty related to the impact of the pandemic on the economies of countries worldwide.

We have broad discretion in the use of our cash and cash equivalents, including the net proceeds we receive in this offering, and may not use them effectively.

Our management has broad discretion to use our cash and cash equivalents, including the net proceeds we receive in this offering, to fund our operations and could spend these funds in ways that do not improve our results of operations or enhance the value of our common stock, and you will not have the opportunity as part of your investment decision to assess whether the net proceeds are being used appropriately. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could result in financial losses that could have a material adverse effect on our business, cause the price of our common stock to decline. Pending their use to fund our operations, we may invest our cash and cash equivalents, including the net proceeds from this offering, in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value.

We could be subject to securities class action litigation.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against companies following a decline in the market price of their securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because biotechnology companies have experienced significant share price volatility in recent years. If we face such litigation, it could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which could harm our business.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price for the shares and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will depend in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If research analysts do not establish and maintain adequate research coverage or if one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades our common stock or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price for our common stock would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which, in turn, could cause the market price or trading volume for our common stock to decline.

We do not expect to pay dividends in the foreseeable future after this offering, and you must rely on price appreciation of your shares for return on your investment.

We have paid no cash dividends on any class of our stock to date and we do not anticipate paying cash dividends in the near term. For the foreseeable future, we intend to retain any earnings to finance the development and expansion of our business, and we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our stock. Accordingly, investors must be prepared to rely on sales of their shares after price appreciation to earn an investment return, which may never occur. Investors seeking cash dividends should not purchase our shares. Any determination to pay dividends in the future will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on our results of operations, financial condition, contractual restrictions, restrictions imposed by applicable law and other factors our board deems relevant.

As our initial public offering price is substantially higher than our net tangible book value per share, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution.

If you purchase Units in this offering, you will pay more for your shares of common stock than the amount paid by our existing stockholders for their shares on a per share basis. As a result, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution in net tangible book value per share in relation to the price that you paid for your shares. We expect the dilution as a result of the offering and the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock and the automatic conversion of our outstanding convertible notes immediately prior to the closing of this offering, to be $9.51$7.86 per share to new investors purchasing our shares in this offering. In addition, you will experience further dilution to the extent that our shares are issued upon the exercise of any warrants or exercise of stock options under any stock incentive plans. See “Dilution” for a more complete description of how the value of your investment in our shares will be diluted upon completion of this offering.

We will incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

As a public company, and particularly after we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company, we will incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur previously. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (“SOX”), the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of Nasdaq, and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on U.S. reporting public companies, including the establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our management and other personnel will need to devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, we expect that these rules and regulations may make it more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, which in turn could make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified senior management personnel or members for our board of directors. In addition, these rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices. Pursuant to Section 404 of SOX (“Section 404”), we will be required to furnish a report by our senior management on our internal control over financial reporting.

While we remain an emerging growth company, we will not be required to include an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. To prepare for eventual compliance with Section 404, once we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company, we will be engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, potentially engage outside consultants and adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that we will not be able to conclude, within the prescribed timeframe or at all, that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404.

We have identified material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting. Failure to maintain effective internal controls could cause our investors to lose confidence in us and adversely affect the market price of our common stock. If our internal controls are not effective, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud.

Effective internal control over financial reporting is necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports in a timely manner. In connection with the audit of our financial statements as of and for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020 and the review of our financial statements for the three month periodssix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and 2021, we identified material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting. A material weakness is a deficiency, or combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. Specifically, we have determined that we lack a sufficient number of qualified accounting and financial reporting personnel with an appropriate level of knowledge, training and experience to address complex accounting issues, sufficient written policies and procedures for accounting and financial reporting in accordance with GAAP, and adequate management review controls. In addition, we have determined that our financial statement close process includes significant control gaps mainly driven by the small size of our accounting and finance staff and, as a result, a significant lack of appropriate segregation of duties.

The above material weaknesses could result in a misstatement of our account balances or disclosures that would result in a material misstatement of our annual or interim financial statements that would not be prevented or detected. To address the material weaknesses, we have implemented, and are continuing to implement, measures designed to improve internal control over financial reporting, including expanding our accounting and finance team to add additional qualified accounting and finance resources, which may include third party consultants, and new financial processes. We intend to continue to take steps to remediate the material weaknesses through the hiring or engagement of additional experienced accounting and financial reporting personnel, formalizing documentation of policies and procedures and further evolving the accounting processes, including implementing appropriate segregation of duties. We expect to incur additional costs to remediate these weaknesses, including personnel, consulting and other costs.

We may not be successful in implementing these changes or in developing other internal controls, which may undermine our ability to provide accurate, timely and reliable reports on our financial and operating results. Further, we will not be able to fully assess whether the steps we are taking will remediate the material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting until we have completed our implementation efforts and sufficient time passes in order to evaluate their effectiveness. In addition, until we remediate these weaknesses, or if we identify additional material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting, we may not detect errors on a timely basis and our financial statements may be materially misstated. Moreover, in the future we may engage in business transactions, such as acquisitions, reorganizations or implementation of new information systems that could negatively affect our internal control over financial reporting and result in material weaknesses.

If we identify new material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting, if we are unable to comply with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner, or if we are unable to assert that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, we may be late with the filing of our periodic reports, investors may lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports, and the market price of our common stock could be negatively affected. As a result of such failures, we could also become subject to investigations by the stock exchange on which our securities are listed, the SEC, or other regulatory authorities, and become subject to litigation from investors and stockholders, which could harm our reputation, financial condition or divert financial and management resources from our core business.

Holders of our Pre-funded Warrant and the Warrants will have no rights as shareholders until they acquire shares of our common stock, if ever, except as set forth in the Pre-funded Warrants or the Warrants.

If you acquire the Pre-funded Warrants or Warrants to purchase shares of our common stock in this offering, you will have no rights with respect to our common stock until you acquire shares of such common stock upon exercise of your Pre-funded Warrants or Warrants, except as set forth in the Pre-funded Warrants or the Warrants, respectively. Upon exercise of your Pre-funded Warrant or the Warrants, you will be entitled to exercise the rights of a holder of common stock only as to matters for which the record date occurs after the exercise date.

There is no public market for the Pre-funded Warrants or the Warrants being offered by us in this offering and an active trading market for the same is not expected to develop.

There is no established public trading market for the Pre-funded Warrants or the Warrants being offered in this offering, and we do not expect a market to develop. In addition, we do not intend to apply for any listing of the Pre-funded Warrants or Warrants offered hereby on the Nasdaq Capital Market or any other securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system. Without an active market, the liquidity of the Pre-funded Warrants and the Warrants will be severely limited.

We are an “emerging growth company,” and the reduced reporting requirements applicable to emerging growth companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act (“the JOBS Act”). For as long as we continue to be an emerging growth company, we may take advantage of exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies, including exemption from compliance with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404, reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation and exemptions from the requirements of holding a nonbinding advisory vote on executive compensation and stockholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved. We will remain an emerging growth company until the earlier of (1) the last day of the fiscal year (a) following the fifth anniversary of the closing of this offering, (b) in which we have total annual gross revenue of at least $1.07 billion or (c) in which we are deemed to be a large accelerated filer, which means the market value of our common stock held by non-affiliates exceeds $700 million as of the end of our prior second fiscal quarter, and (2) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt during the prior three-year period.

In addition, under the JOBS Act, emerging growth companies may delay adopting new or revised accounting standards until such time as those standards apply to private companies. We may elect not to avail ourselves of this exemption from new or revised accounting standards and, therefore, may be subject to the same new or revised accounting standards as other public companies that are not emerging growth companies.

We cannot predict if investors will find our common stock less attractive because we may rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our share price may be more volatile.

Anti-takeover provisions contained in our certificate of incorporation and bylaws to be adopted upon the closing of this offering, as well as provisions of Delaware law, could impair a takeover attempt.

Our certificate of incorporation, bylaws and Delaware law contain or will contain provisions which could have the effect of rendering more difficult, delaying or preventing an acquisition deemed undesirable by our board of directors. Our corporate governance documents include or will include provisions:

These provisions, alone or together, could delay or prevent hostile takeovers and changes in control or changes in our management.

As a Delaware corporation, we are also subject to provisions of Delaware law, including Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation law, which prevents some stockholders holding more than 15% of our outstanding common stock from engaging in certain business combinations without approval of the holders of substantially all of our outstanding common stock.

Any provision of our certificate of incorporation, bylaws or Delaware law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our common stock, and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common stock.

Our certificate of incorporation, as amended, designates the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware as the sole and exclusive forum for certain types of actions and proceedings that may be initiated by our stockholders, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers or other employees.

Our certificate of incorporation requires that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will, to the fullest extent permitted by law, be the sole and exclusive forum for each of the following:

provided, that, if and only if the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware dismisses any of the foregoing actions for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, any such action or actions may be brought in another state court sitting in the State of Delaware.

The exclusive forum provision is limited to the extent permitted by law, and it will not apply to claims arising under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), or for any other federal securities laws which provide for exclusive federal jurisdiction.

Furthermore, Section 22 of the Securities Act creates concurrent jurisdiction for federal and state courts over all such Securities Act actions. Accordingly, both state and federal courts have jurisdiction to entertain such claims. To prevent having to litigate claims in multiple jurisdictions and the threat of inconsistent or contrary rulings by different courts, among other considerations, our second amended and restated certificate of incorporation provides that the federal district courts of the United States of America will be the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act. While the Delaware courts have determined that such choice of forum provisions are facially valid, a stockholder may nevertheless seek to bring such a claim arising under the Securities Act against us, our directors, officers, or other employees in a venue other than in the federal district courts of the United States of America. In such instance, we would expect to vigorously assert the validity and enforceability of the exclusive forum provisions of our second amended and restated certificate of incorporation.

Although we believe this provision benefits us by providing increased consistency in the application of Delaware law in the types of lawsuits to which it applies, this provision may limit or discourage a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers or other employees, which may discourage such lawsuits against us and our directors, officers and other employees. Alternatively, if a court were to find the choice of forum provision contained in our certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our business and financial condition.

We note that there is uncertainty as to whether a court would enforce the provision and that investors cannot waive compliance with the federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder. Although we believe this provision benefits us by providing increased consistency in the application of Delaware law in the types of lawsuits to which it applies, the provision may have the effect of discouraging lawsuits against our directors and officers.

CAUTIONARY STATEMENT CONCERNING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus contains certain “forward-looking statements” with respect to our business, financial condition, liquidity and results of operations. Words such as “anticipates,” “expects,” “intends,” “plans,” “predicts,” “believes,” “seeks,” “estimates,” “could,” “would,” “will,” “may,” “can,” “continue,” “potential,” “should,” and the negative of these terms or other comparable terminology often identify forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements are not guarantees of future performance and are subject to risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially from the results contemplated by the forward-looking statements. See “Risk Factors” beginning on page 9.

Many of the important factors that will determine these results are beyond our ability to control or predict. You are cautioned not to put undue reliance on any forward-looking statements, which speak only as of the date of this prospectus. Except as otherwise required by law, we do not assume any obligation to publicly update or release any revisions to these forward-looking statements to reflect events or circumstances after such applicable date or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events. You should, however, review the factors and risks we describe in the “Risk Factors” section hereof beginning on page 9 and in reports we will file from time to time with the SEC after the date of this prospectus.

MARKET AND INDUSTRY DATA

We obtained the industry, statistical and market data included in this prospectus from our own internal estimates and research as well as from industry and general publications and research, surveys and studies conducted by third parties. All of the market data used in this prospectus involve a number of assumptions and limitations, and the sources of such data cannot guarantee the accuracy or completeness of such information. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding the third-party information and we believe that each of these studies and publications is reliable, the industry in which we operate is subject to a high degree of uncertainty and risk due to a variety of important factors, including those described in the section titled “Risk Factors.” These and other factors could cause results to differ materially from those expressed in the estimates made by third parties and by us.

TRADEMARKS, SERVICE MARKS AND TRADE NAMES

We own or have rights to use a number of registered and common law trademarks, service marks and/or trade names in connection with our business in the United States and/or in certain foreign jurisdictions.

Solely for convenience, the trademarks, service marks, logos and trade names referred to in this prospectus are without the ^® and ™ symbols, but such references are not intended to indicate, in any way, that we will not assert, to the fullest extent under applicable law, our rights or the rights of the applicable licensors to these trademarks, service marks and trade names. This prospectus contains additional trademarks, service marks and trade names of others, which are the property of their respective owners. All trademarks, service marks and trade names appearing in this prospectus are, to our knowledge, the property of their respective owners. We do not intend our use or display of other companies’ trademarks, service marks, copyrights or trade names to imply a relationship with, or endorsement or sponsorship of us by, any other companies.

We have trademarks for the names RENOVORX, RENOVOGEM, RENOVOCATH, TAMP and DELIVERING THERAPY WHERE IT MATTERS. We have a trademark pending for RenovoTAMP.

USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that the net proceeds from this offering will be approximately $19.9$16.0 million ($23.018.5 million if the representative exercises its over-allotment option in full), after deducting the underwriting discount and estimated offering expenses payable by us, based on an assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit (the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover of this prospectus).

We intend to use:

We estimate that our current capital resources, along with the net proceeds from this offering, will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through mid 2023. However, the net proceeds from this offering, together with our current cash, will not be sufficient for us to fund the development of RenovoGem through regulatory approval, and we will need to raise additional capital to complete the development and commercialization of RenovoGem. At this time, we cannot predict with certainty the amount of capital needed to complete the development and commercialization of RenovoGem, but we anticipate seeking additional capital in the future to fund such capital needs through further equity offerings and/or debt borrowings. We cannot guarantee that we will be able to raise additional capital on reasonable terms or at all.

We may also use a portion of the net proceeds of this offering to acquire or invest in complementary businesses, products, or technologies, or to obtain the right to use such complementary technologies. We have no commitments with respect to any acquisition or investment, and we are not currently involved in any negotiations with respect to any such transaction.

As of the date of this prospectus, we cannot specify with certainty all of the particular uses for the net proceeds to be received upon the completion of this offering. The amounts and timing of our actual expenditures will depend on numerous factors, including the status of our product development efforts, sales and marketing activities, technological advances, amount of cash generated or used by our operations and competition. Accordingly, our management will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds and investors will be relying on the judgment of our management regarding the application of the proceeds of this offering. Pending such use, we intend to invest the net proceeds in interest-bearing investment-grade securities or government securities.

DIVIDEND POLICY

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our common stock. We currently intend to retain all available funds and any future earnings for use in the operation of our business and do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our common stock in the near future. We may enter into credit agreements or other borrowing arrangements in the future that will restrict our ability to declare or pay cash dividends on our common stock.

Any future determination to declare dividends will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on our financial condition, operating results, capital requirements, contractual restrictions, general business conditions and other factors that our board of directors may deem relevant.

CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our total capitalization as of March 31,June 30, 2021:

You should read this table together with our financial statements, the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus and the information under “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

Each $1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit, the midpoint of the price range listed on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase (decrease) the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash and cash equivalents and total stockholders’ equity by approximately $1.7 million, assuming that the number of Units offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each increase (decrease) of 100,000 Units in the number of Units offered by us at the assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit, the midpoint of the price range listed on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase (decrease) the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash and cash equivalents, working capital, total assets and total stockholders’ equity by approximately $1.1$0.9 million.

DILUTION

If you purchase Units in this offering, your interest will be diluted to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per share and our net tangible book value per share after this offering. Dilution results from the fact that the assumed initial public offering price per share is substantially in excess of the net tangible book value per share attributable to the existing stockholders for our presently outstanding common stock.

Our net tangible book value (deficit) was approximately $(3.3)$(4.6) million or $(1.45)$(2.01) per share, as of March 31,June 30, 2021. Our net tangible book value represents the amount of our total tangible assets (which is calculated by subtracting net intangible assets, deferred tax assets, and prepaid offering expenses from our total assets), less the amount of our total liabilities.

Our pro forma net tangible book value as of March 31,June 30, 2021 was $0.5$1.7 million, or $0.08$0.26 per share of our common stock. Pro forma net tangible book value represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities. Pro forma net tangible book value per share represents pro forma net tangible book value divided by the total number of shares outstanding as of March 31,June 30, 2021, after giving effect to the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock and the automatic conversion of our outstanding convertible notes into 4,066,0154,172,129 shares of common stock and warrants to purchase 397,901636,660 shares of common stock immediately prior to the closing of this offering as if such conversions had occurred on March 31,June 30, 2021.

After giving further effect to the sale and issuance by us of 1,850,0001,800,000 Units in this offering at the assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit, (the midpoint of the price range as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus), after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, assuming no sale of any Pre-funded Units and no exercise of the Warrants being sold in this offering and the warrants issuable upon the automatic conversion of our outstanding convertible notes, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of March 31,June 30, 2021 would have been $20.4$17.7 million or $2.49$2.14 per share. This represents an immediate increase in pro forma net tangible book value of $2.41$1.88 per share to our existing stockholders, and an immediate dilution in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value of $9.51$7.86 per share to new investors. The following table illustrates this per share dilution:

If the representative’s over-allotment option is exercised in full, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering would be $2.78$2.36 and dilution per share to new investors purchasing Units in this offering would be $9.22$7.64 at the assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit, (the midpoint of the price range as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus) and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The pro forma as adjusted information discussed above is illustrative only. Our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value following the completion of this offering is subject to adjustment based on the actual initial public offering price of our Units and other terms of this offering determined at pricing.

The following tables summarize the differences between our existing stockholders and the investors purchasing Units in this offering with respect to the number of Units purchased from us, the total consideration paid and the average price per share paid, at the assumed initial public offering price of $12.00$10.00 per Unit, (the midpoint of the price range as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus) before deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The table above assumes no exercise of the representative’s over-allotment option. If the representative’s over-allotment option is exercised in full, upon completion of this offering, the percentage of common stock held by existing holders would be reduced to 73.2%73.8%, and the percentage of common stock held by new investors purchasing common stock in this offering would be increased to 26.8%26.2%.

The number of shares outstanding is based on shares outstanding as of March 31,June 30, 2021 and except as noted above excludes the following:

MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Unless the context otherwise requires, all references in this section to the “Company,” “we,” “us, or “our” refer to the business of RenovoRx, Inc. You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with the “Selected Financial Data” section of this prospectus and our financial statements and the related notes appearing elsewhere in this prospectus. This discussion contains forward-looking statements that reflect our plans, estimates, and beliefs that involve risks and uncertainties. As a result of many factors, such as those set forth under the “Risk Factors” and “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” sections and elsewhere in this proxy statement/prospectus, our actual results may differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements.

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on developing therapies for the local treatment of solid tumors and conducting a Phase 3 registrational trial for our lead product candidate RenovoGem™. Our therapy platform, RenovoRx Trans-Arterial Micro-Perfusion, or RenovoTAMP™ utilizes approved chemotherapeutics with validated mechanisms of action and well-established safety and side effect profiles, with the goal of increasing their efficacy, improving their safety, and widening their therapeutic window. RenovoTAMP combines our patented FDA cleared delivery system, RenovoCath^®RenovoCath®, with small molecule chemotherapeutic agents that can be forced across the vessel wall using pressure, targeting these anti-canceranticancer drugs locally to the solid tumors. While we anticipate investigating other chemotherapeutic agents for intra-arterial delivery via RenovoTAMP, our clinical work to date has focused on gemcitabine, which is a generic drug. Our first product candidate, RenovoGem, is a drug and device combination consisting of intra-arterial gemcitabine and RenovoCath. FDA has determined that RenovoGem will be regulated as, and if approved we expect will be reimbursed as, a new oncology drug product. We have secured FDA Orphan Drug Designation for RenovoGem in our first two indications: pancreatic cancer and cholangiocarcinoma (bile duct cancer, or CCA). We have completed our RR1 Phase 1/2 and RR2 observational registry studies, with 20 and 25 patients respectively, in locally advanced pancreatic cancer, or LAPC. These studies demonstrated a median overall survival of 27.9 months in patients treated with RenovoGem and radiation. Based on previous large randomized clinical trials, the expected survival of LAPC patients is 12-15 months in patients receiving only intravenous (IV) systemic chemotherapy or IV chemotherapy plus radiation (which are both considered standard of care). Unlike the randomized trials that established these standard-of-care results, our RR1 and RR2 clinical trials did not prospectively control the standard of care therapy received prior to RenovoTAMP. Based on FDA safety review of our Phase 1/2 study the FDA allowed us to proceed to evaluate RenovoGem within our Phase 3 registration Investigational New Drug, or IND, clinical trial. Our Phase 3 trial is over 40%44% enrolled as of JulyAugust 15, 2021 and we expect to report data from a planned interim data readout in the second half of 2022. We intend to evaluate RenovoGem in a second indication in a Phase 2/3 trial in hilar CCA (cancer that occurs in the bile ducts that lead out of the liver and join with the gallbladder, also called extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, or HCCA). We plan to propose the trial to the FDA and potentially launch in the first half of 2022. In addition, we may evaluate RenovoGem in other indications, potentially including locally advanced lung cancer, locally advanced uterine tumors, and glioblastoma (an aggressive type of cancer that can occur in the brain or spinal cord). To date, we have used gemcitabine, but in the future we may develop other chemotherapeutic agents for intra-arterial delivery via RenovoCath.

Since our inception, we have devoted substantially all of our efforts to developing our cancer therapy platform and product candidates, raising capital and organizing and staffing our company. To date, we have funded our operations with proceeds from the issuance of convertible preferred stock and convertible notes. Through March 31,June 30, 2021, we received total net proceeds of $15.0$17.0 million, of which $11.8 million was from the issuance of convertible preferred stock, $3.0$5.0 million from convertible notes and $140,000 from a loan under the Paycheck Protection Program, or PPP. In April 2021, the Company entered into a series of convertible note agreements with certain current and new investors to provide an aggregate $2.0 million in cash proceeds.

We have incurred significant operating losses and generated negative cash flows from operations since our inception. As of March 31,June 30, 2021, we had cash and cash equivalents of $837,000.$1.6 million. We also had net losses of $1.1$1.8 and $2.5 million in each offor the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and March 31, 2021.2021, respectively. As of March 31,June 30, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of $16.1$17.4 million. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses, increasing operating losses and negative cash flows from operations in 2021 and for the foreseeable future. We do not expect to generate revenues from product sales unless and until we successfully complete development and obtain regulatory approval for one or more product candidates. We expect that our expenses will increase substantially in connection with our ongoing research and development activities, particularly as we:

In addition to the variables described above, if and when any of our product candidates successfully complete development, we will incur substantial additional costs associated with establishing a sales, marketing, medical affairs and distribution infrastructure to commercialize products for which we may obtain marketing approval, regulatory filings, marketing approval, and post-marketing requirements, in addition to other commercial costs. We cannot reasonably estimate these costs at this time.

As a result, we will need significant additional funding to support our continuing operations. Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenue, we expect to finance our cash needs through equity issuances, debt financings and collaborations, licenses or other similar arrangements. We currently have no credit facility or committed sources of capital. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the future sale of equity or debt, the ownership interests of our stockholders will be diluted and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect the rights of our existing common stockholders. If we raise additional funds through the issuance of debt securities, these securities could contain covenants that would restrict our operations. We may require additional capital beyond our currently anticipated amounts and additional capital may not be available on reasonable terms, or at all. If we raise additional funds through collaboration arrangements or other strategic transactions in the future, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies or future revenue streams or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate development or future commercialization efforts.

Without giving effect to the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, we expect that our existing cash on hand will be insufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditures for at least one year from the date of our financial statements. We will need to raise additional capital to finance our operations, which cannot be assured. We have concluded that this circumstance raises substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern for at least one year from the date of issuance date of our financial statements. See Note 2 to our audited financial statements and Note 2 to our unaudited condensed interim condensed financial statements, each included elsewhere in this prospectus, for additional information on our assessment. Similarly, our independent registered public accounting firm included an explanatory paragraph in its report on our audited financial statements as of and for the year ended December 31, 2020, describing the existence of substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

Impact of COVID-19

In December 2019, a novel strain of coronavirus, which causes the disease known as COVID-19, was reported to have surfaced in Wuhan, China. Since then, COVID-19 has spread globally. In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic. The ongoing COVID-19 global and national health emergency has caused significant disruption in the international and U.S. economies and financial markets. The spread of COVID-19 has caused illness, quarantines, cancellation of events and travel, business and school shutdowns, reduction in business activity and financial transactions, labor shortages, supply chain interruptions and overall economic and financial market instability.

In response to public health directives and orders and to help minimize the risk of the virus to employees, we have taken precautionary measures, including implementing work-from home policies for certain employees. The COVID-19 global pandemic also has negatively affected, and we expect will continue to negatively affect, our clinical studies. For example, we have faced challenges in conducting our clinical trials, including recruiting subjects and accommodating patient visits. Additionally, our service providers and their operations may be disrupted, temporarily closed or experience worker or supply shortages, which could result in additional disruptions or delays in shipments of purchased materials or the continued development of our product candidates. To date, we have not suffered material supply chain disruptions.

We are not able to estimate the duration of the pandemic and the potential impact on our business. As the global pandemic of COVID-19 continues to evolve, it could result in significant long-term disruption of global financial markets, reducing our ability to raise additional capital when needed and on acceptable terms, if at all, which could negatively affect our liquidity. The extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic impacts our clinical development and regulatory efforts will depend on future developments that are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted with confidence, such as the ultimate geographic spread of the disease, the duration of the outbreak, travel restrictions, quarantines and social distancing requirements in the United States and other countries, business closures or business disruptions and the effectiveness of actions taken in the United States and other countries to contain and treat the virus. We will continue to monitor the COVID-19 situation closely.

In April 2020, we received $140,000 in funding as a promissory note under the PPP. This promissory note was subsequently forgiven in February 2021. See Note 6 and Note 14 to theour audited financial statements and Note 6 to our unaudited condensed interim financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus for additional information.

Components of Our Results of Operations

Revenue

We have not generated any revenue from product sales and do not expect to generate any revenue from the sale of products for several years, if at all. If our development efforts for our current or future product candidates are successful and result in marketing approval or collaboration or license agreements with third parties, we may generate revenue in the future from a combination of product sales or payments from collaboration or license agreements that we may enter into with third parties.

Operating Expenses

Research and Development

Research and development expenses consist of costs related to the research and development of our platform technology. Clinical trial costs are a significant component of research and development expenses and include costs associated with third-party contractors. We outsource a substantial portion of our clinical trial activities, utilizing the service of third-party clinical trial sites and contract research organizations to assist us with the execution of our clinical trials. In addition, we have FDA 510(k) clearance for the RenovoCath delivery device, which comprises part of the RenovoGem product. Accordingly, we were able to charge our clinical trial sites for the RenovoCath delivery device. To date, proceeds from clinical trial sites have been adequate to cover our direct costs of manufacturing the RenovoCath delivery devices for which they have paid. Any proceeds we receive from the clinical trial sites for their purchase of the RenovoCath delivery device are offset against our research and development expenses. We expect our research and development expenses to increase for the foreseeable future as we continue the development of our product candidates and enroll subjects in our ongoing clinical trials, initiate future clinical trials and pursue regulatory approval of our product candidates. It is difficult to predict with any certainty the duration and completion costs of our current or future clinical trials of our product candidates or if, when or to what extent we will achieve regulatory approval and generate revenue from the commercialization and sale of our product candidates. The duration, costs and timing of clinical trials and other development of our product candidates will depend on a variety of factors, including uncertainties in clinical trial enrollment, timing and extent of future clinical trials, development of new product candidates and significant and changing government regulation. We may never succeed in achieving regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

Our research and development expenses include:

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred. Costs for certain development activities, such as clinical trials and preclinical studies, are recognized based on evaluation of progress to completion of specific tasks using data such as subject enrollment, clinical site activations or information provided to us by third party vendors.

Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and work-from-home policies and other operational limitations mandated by federal, state, and local governments as a result of the pandemic, certain of our research and development activities have been delayed and may be further delayed until such operational limitations are lifted.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses consist of salaries, benefits, and stock-based compensation for personnel in executive, finance and administrative functions, professional services and associated costs related to accounting, tax, audit, legal, intellectual property and other matters, consulting costs, conferences, travel and allocated expenses for rent, insurance and other general overhead costs. Following the listing of our common stock on Nasdaq, we expect to continue to incur additional expenses as a result of operating as a public company, including costs to comply with the rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC, and Nasdaq listing standards and increased expenses in the areas of insurance, professional services and investor relations. As a result, we expect our general and administrative expenses to increase for the foreseeable future. General and administrative expenses are expensed as incurred.

Other Income (Expense)(Expenses), Net

Interest Income (Expense)(Expenses) Net

Interest income (expense), net consists of interest income earned from our cash and cash equivalents net of interest expense. Interest expense consists of charges relating to the amortization of the debt discount and debt issuance costs as well as interest on amounts outstanding on our convertible notes.

Other Income (Expense)(Expenses), Net

Other income (expense)(expenses), net comprise primarily investment expenses and foreign currency exchange gains and losses. We expect our foreign currency exchange gains and losses to continue to fluctuate in the future due to changes in foreign currency exchange rates.

Gain on Loan Extinguishment

Gain on loan extinguishment resulted from the forgiveness and cancellation of the Company’s PPP loan.

Income Tax Expense

We account for income taxes using the asset and liability method. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recorded based on the estimated future tax effects of differences between the financial statement and income tax basis of existing assets and liabilities. Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recorded net and classified as noncurrent on the balance sheets. A valuation allowance is provided against our deferred income tax assets when their realization is not reasonably assured.

We are subject to income taxes in the federal and state jurisdictions. Tax regulations within each jurisdiction are subject to the interpretation of the related tax laws and regulations and require significant judgment to apply. In accordance with the authoritative guidance on accounting for uncertainty in income taxes, we recognize tax liabilities for uncertain tax positions when it is more likely than not that a tax position will not be sustained upon examination and settlement with various taxing authorities. Liabilities for uncertain tax positions are measured based upon the largest amount of benefit that is more-likely-than-not (greater than 50%) of being realized upon settlement. Our policy is to recognize interest and/or penalties related to income tax matters in income tax expense.

On March 27, 2020, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, or the CARES Act, was enacted. The CARES Act includes several significant provisions for corporations, including the usage of net operating losses, interest deductions and payroll benefits. Corporate taxpayers may carryback net operating losses, or NOLs, originating during 2018 through 2020 for up to five years.

Results of Operations

The following table summarizes the significant components of our results of operations for the periods presented (in thousands):

Comparison of the ThreeSix Months Ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and 2021

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and 2021 (in thousands, except percentages):

Research and Development

Research and development expenses decreased $170,000,$37,000, or 21%3%, in the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2021 compared to the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020. This decrease was due to a reduction of $50,000 in clinical development spending related to travel and off-site meetings due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a $42,000$38,000 reduction in expenses for preclinical studies due to the completion of sample analysis activities, and a $12,000$21,000 reduction in regulatory expenses due to lower support for European filings and vendor audits.audits, and a $16,000 reduction in personnel costs due to staff turnover. Also contributing to the decrease in research and development expense was an increase of $45,000$91,000 in offsetting clinical supply usage and corresponding vendor payments from clinical trial sites. Vendor payments for delivery devices representsrepresent the cash payment made by vendors for the RenovoCath delivery devices used in clinical trials. This overall decrease in research and development spending was offset by an increase of $129,000 in clinical development spending due to higher enrollment in the TiGeRaC clinical trial.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses increased $170,000,$301,000, or 69%67%, in the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2021 compared to the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020. This increase was due to an increase inhigher professional services expenses of $285,000$392,000 primarily as a result of preparing for this offering offset by a reductionand an increase in spending on legalpersonnel costs of $68,000$46,000. These increases were partially offset by lower legal fees of $50,000 in 2021 due to reduced spending on intellectual property andprojects completed in 2020 that did not recur in 2021 as well as a decrease of $37,000$87,000 in executive-level clinical support costs.costs and other expenses.

Interest Income (Expense), Net

Interest expense for the six months ended June 30, 2020 was $169,000 and comprises both the 5% stated interest on the 2020 Notes and the amortization of the debt discount and debt issuance costs. The interest expense for the three-month periodsix months ended March 31,June 30, 2021 comprises both the stated interest on the note2020 and 2021 Convertible Notes of 5% per annum, or $37,000,$89,000, as well as the amortization of the discount and debt issuance costs associated with the 2020 and 2021 Convertible Notes of $193,000. Interest income for the three months ended March 31, 2020 was de minimis.$538,000.

Other Expense,Expenses, Net

Other expense, net for the three months ended March 31, 2021 was de minimis. There was no other expenseexpenses, net for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020. Other expenses, net for the six months ended June 30, 2021 was $52,000 and pertains primarily to the mark-to-market adjustment on the derivative liability resulting from the 2020 and 2021 Convertible Notes.

On March 1, 2021, the Companywe entered into an amendment to the 2020 Convertible Notes which extends the maturity date of the 2020 Convertible Notes from March 31, 2021 to October 30, 2021 and provides for the conversion of the 2020 Convertible Notes into shares of the Company’sour common stock upon a Qualified Financing. No other terms to the 2020 Convertible Notes were amended. This amendment was accounted for as a troubled debt restructuring pursuant to FASB ASC Topic 470-60, “Troubled Debt Restructurings by Debtors”. As the future undiscounted cash flows of the 2020 Convertible Notes were greater than their carrying amount, the carrying amount was not adjusted and no gain was recognized as a result of the modification of terms.

Gain on Loan Extinguishment

The gain on loan extinguishment of $140,000 for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2021 resulted from the forgiveness and cancellation of the Company’sour PPP loan.

Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2019 and 2020

Research and Development

The following table summarizes our research and development expenses, personnel and our outsourced spending by functional area (in thousands):

Research and development expenses were $3.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2019 compared to $2.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2020, a net decrease of $0.6 million. This net decrease can be attributed to a number of factors. The decrease in clinical development costs of $0.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2020 is primarily due to the initiation of the European portion of our clinical trial and startup of clinical trial sites in the U.S. in 2019 that did not recur in 2020. Vendor payments for delivery devices represents the cash payment made by vendors for the RenovoCath delivery devices used in clinical trials. To date, proceeds from clinical trial sites have been adequate to cover our direct costs of manufacturing the RenovoCath delivery devices for which they have paid. Preclinical research and development decreased by $0.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2020 due to higher costs associated with early-stage product development in 2019. Regulatory expenses increased by approximately $0.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2020 due to a higher level of support required for communications and filings with the FDA. Our personnel-related expenses increased by $0.1 million in the year ended December 31, 2020 driven primarily by increased staffing costs to support our ongoing clinical trials.

General and Administrative Expenses

The following table summarizes our general and administrative expenses (in thousands):

General and administrative expenses were $0.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2019 compared to $0.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2020, a decrease of $0.1 million. The decrease in general and administrative expenses was primarily attributable to reductions in expenses related to legal, professional services, consulting, recruiting, medical conferences and communications.

Interest Income (Expense), Net (in thousands)

Interest income (expense), net decreased by $0.7 million from the year ended December 31, 2019 to the year ended December 31, 2020. The decrease in interest income is due to interest earned on lower cash balances and lower interest rates throughout 2020 compared to 2019. Interest expense increased by $0.6 million during the year ended December 31, 2020 primarily as a result of the 2020 Convertible Notes we issued in 2020. Interest expense comprises both the stated interest on the note of 5% per annum or $0.1 million as well as the amortization of the discount and debt issuance costs associated with the 2020 Convertible Notes of $0.5 million.

Other Expense,Income (Expenses), Net

Other expense,expenses, net increased by $9,000 from the year ended December 31, 2019 to the year ended December 31, 2020, a de minimis amount

Loss on Change in Fair Value of Warrant Liability

Loss on change in fair value of warrant liability decreased by $8,000 from the year ended December 31, 2019 to the year ended December 31, 2020, a de minimis amount.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

For the years ended December 31, 2019 and December 31, 2020, our net losses were $3.8 million in each of those years, and foryears. For the threesix months ended March 31, 2020 and March 31,June 30, 2021 we incurred net losses of $1.1 million in each of those periods.$2.5 million. As of March 31,June 30, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of $16.1$17.4 million. We expect to incur additional losses and increased operating expenses in future periods. Since our inception, our primary sources of liquidity have been the issuance of convertible preferred stock and convertible notes.

As of December 31, 2020 and March 31,June 30, 2021, we had $1.8 million and $837,000$1.6 million in cash and cash equivalents, respectively. During the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2021, we used $1.0$2.2 million of cash in operations. Our primary requirements for liquidity have been to fund our clinical trial activity and general corporate and working capital needs. Our cash and cash equivalents at these dates was primarily from $3.0$5.0 million in net proceeds from convertible notes and a promissory note with Silicon Valley Bank for proceeds of $140,000 pursuant to the PPP under the CARES Act. In February 2021, we received notification and confirmation from Silicon Valley Bank that our PPP loan including related accrued interest has been forgiven in its entirety by the U.S. Small Business Administration and automatically cancelled.

Based on our planned operations, we do not expect that the proceeds from this offering plus our current cash and cash equivalents will be sufficient to fund our operations for at least 12 months after the date of this prospectus. After this offering, wethat the financial statements for June 30, 2021 are issued. We intend to raise additional capital through equity offerings and/or debt financings. Adequate funding may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to raise capital when needed or on attractive terms, we would be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our clinical trials or other operations. If any of these events occur, our ability to achieve our operational goals would be adversely affected. Our future capital requirements and the adequacy of available funds will depend on many factors, including those described in “Risk Factors.” Depending on the severity and direct impact of these factors on us, we may be unable to secure additional financing to meet our operating requirements on terms favorable to us, or at all.

Sources of Liquidity

Since our inception, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and we have incurred significant operating losses. We do not have any products that have achieved regulatory marketing approval and we do not expect to generate revenue from sales of any product candidates for several years, if ever.

To date, we have funded our operations primarily through the issuance and sale of convertible preferred stock and debt. From our inception through March 31,June 30, 2021, we had raised net cash proceeds of $14.9$17.0 million from the issuance and sale of our convertible preferred stock and convertible notes. We also received $140,000 from a loan under the PPP which was forgiven in February 2021. As of March 31,June 30, 2021, we had cash and cash equivalents of $837,000$1.6 million and an accumulated deficit of $16.1$17.4 million. In April 2021, we entered into a series of convertible note agreements with certain existing and new investors to provide an aggregate $2.0 million in cash proceeds.

Cash Flows

Our primary uses of cash are to fund our operations including research and development and general and administrative expenses. We will continue to incur operating losses in the future and expect that our research and development and general and administrative expenses will continue to increase as we continue our research and development efforts with respect to clinical development of our product candidates and further develop our platform. We expect that we will use a substantial portion of the net proceeds of this offering, in combination with our existing cash and cash equivalents, for these purposes and for the increased expenses associated with being a public company. Cash used to fund operating expenses is impacted by the timing of when we pay expenses, as reflected in the change in our outstanding accounts payable and accrued expenses.

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods indicated (in thousands):

Cash Used in Operating Activities

Net cash used in operating activities for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 reflected a net loss of $1.8 million and a net change in our operating assets and liabilities of $202,000 partially offset by aggregate non-cash charges of $159,000 comprising amortization of a debt discount and stock-based compensation expense. Cash used in operating activities for the six months ended June 30, 2021 was approximately $1.0reflected a net loss of $2.5 million and a net change in eachour operating assets and liabilities of the periods, consisting$246,000, partially offset by non-cash charges of $0.5 million comprising primarily amortization of our net losses in both periods of $1.1 million.a debt discount and gain on loan extinguishment.

Net cash used in operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2019 of $3.4 million was primarily attributable to a $3.8 million net loss, partially offset by a net increase in operating assets and liabilities of $0.4 million.

Net cash used in operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2020 of $3.5 million was primarily attributable to a $3.8 million net loss and a decrease in operating assets and liabilities of $0.2 million, partially offset by amortization of debt issuance costs and amortization of debt discount of $0.5 million.

Cash Used in Investing Activities

There were noNet cash used in investing activities for the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 and March 31, 2021.June 30, 2021 was zero and $15,000, respectively. Our investing activities have consisted primarily of capital expenditures made for leasehold improvements for our new office lease. There were no investment activities in the comparable six months ended June 30, 2020.

Net cash used in investing activities during the year ended December 31, 2019 was insignificant. There were no investing activities during the year ended December 31, 2020.

Cash Provided by Financing Activities

Net cash provided by financing activities in the threesix months ended March 31,June 30, 2020 was $1.3$2.7 million, consisting of $2.6 million in proceeds from the issuance of convertible notes, $140,000 in proceeds from the PPP loan and $36,000 from exercises of the Series A-1 warrant and stock options. Net cash provided by financing in the six months ended June 30, 2021 was $2.0 million and consisted primarily of $1.3 million in proceeds from the issuance of convertible notes.