Investments | 2. Investments There were no short-term investments held at December 31, 2023. Short-term investments held at December 31, 2022 include $ 9.9 million of corporate bonds, $ 3.0 million of U.S. Treasury securities and obligations of U.S. government agencies, and $ 1.2 million of obligations of states and political subdivisions. The amortized cost, allowance for credit losses, carrying amount, gross unrecognized gains and losses, and the fair value of those investments classified as held-to-maturity at December 31, 2023 are summarized as follows: Amortized Allowance for Credit Losses Carrying Gross Gross Fair (in thousands) States and political subdivisions $ 416,916 $ ( 38 ) $ 416,878 $ 4,166 $ ( 12,074 ) $ 408,970 Corporate bonds 52,321 ( 142 ) 52,179 — ( 2,231 ) 49,948 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed 3,297 — 3,297 25 ( 123 ) 3,199 U.S. Treasury securities and obligations 11,186 — 11,186 26 ( 273 ) 10,939 Asset-backed securities 37 ( 2 ) 35 1 — 36 Totals $ 483,757 $ ( 182 ) $ 483,575 $ 4,218 $ ( 14,701 ) $ 473,092 The amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses, fair value, and the allowance for credit losses of those investments classified as available-for-sale at December 31, 2023 are summarized as follows: Amortized Gross Gross Fair Allowance for Credit Losses (in thousands) States and political subdivisions $ 138,031 $ 583 $ ( 6,719 ) $ 131,895 $ — Corporate bonds 168,134 2,105 ( 3,486 ) 166,753 — U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed securities 5,190 — ( 445 ) 4,745 — U.S. Treasury securities and obligations 14,816 — ( 1,145 ) 13,671 — Totals $ 326,171 $ 2,688 $ ( 11,795 ) $ 317,064 $ — The cost, gross unrealized gains and losses, and the fair value of equity securities at December 31, 2023 are summarized as follows: Cost Gross Gross Fair (in thousands) Equity securities: Domestic common stock $ 44,046 $ 13,101 $ — $ 57,147 Total equity securities $ 44,046 $ 13,101 $ — $ 57,147 The amortized cost, allowance for credit losses, carrying amount, gross unrealized gains and losses, and the fair value of those investments classified as held-to-maturity at December 31, 2022 are summarized as follows: Amortized Allowance for Credit Losses Carrying Gross Gross Fair (in thousands) States and political subdivisions $ 415,136 $ ( 40 ) $ 415,096 $ 922 $ ( 20,074 ) $ 395,944 Corporate bonds 59,903 ( 196 ) 59,707 1 ( 3,857 ) 55,851 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed 3,696 — 3,696 33 ( 153 ) 3,576 U.S. Treasury securities and obligations 13,123 — 13,123 25 ( 442 ) 12,706 Asset-backed securities 69 ( 3 ) 66 2 ( 1 ) 67 Totals $ 491,927 $ ( 239 ) $ 491,688 $ 983 $ ( 24,527 ) $ 468,144 The amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses, fair value, and the allowance for credit losses of those investments classified as available-for-sale at December 31, 2022 are summarized as follows: Amortized Gross Gross Fair Allowance for Credit Losses (in thousands) States and political subdivisions $ 166,019 $ 463 $ ( 9,826 ) $ 156,656 $ — Corporate bonds 150,915 530 ( 6,657 ) 144,788 — U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed securities 5,984 — ( 538 ) 5,446 — U.S. Treasury securities and obligations 15,675 9 ( 1,453 ) 14,231 — Totals $ 338,593 $ 1,002 $ ( 18,474 ) $ 321,121 $ — The cost, gross unrealized gains and losses on, and fair value of equity securities at December 31, 2022 are summarized as follows: Cost Gross Gross Fair (in thousands) Equity securities: Domestic common stock $ 50,185 $ 11,873 $ — $ 62,058 Total equity securities $ 50,185 $ 11,873 $ — $ 62,058 A summary of the carrying amounts and fair value of investments in fixed maturity securities classified as held-to-maturity, by contractual maturity, is as follows: December 31, 2023 December 31, 2022 Carrying Fair Carrying Fair (in thousands) Maturity: Within one year $ 64,129 $ 63,703 $ 41,878 $ 41,652 After one year through five years 136,854 131,396 165,216 159,006 After five years through ten years 114,990 110,814 121,739 112,665 After ten years 164,270 163,944 159,093 151,178 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed securities 3,297 3,199 3,696 3,576 Asset-backed securities 35 36 66 67 Totals $ 483,575 $ 473,092 $ 491,688 $ 468,144 A summary of the amortized cost and fair value of investments in fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale, by contractual maturity, is as follows: December 31, 2023 December 31, 2022 Amortized Fair Amortized Fair (in thousands) Maturity: Within one year $ 25,995 $ 25,875 $ 28,290 $ 27,814 After one year through five years 106,178 102,201 68,876 65,406 After five years through ten years 82,664 80,911 102,296 95,366 After ten years 106,144 103,332 133,147 127,089 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed securities 5,190 4,745 5,984 5,446 Totals $ 326,171 $ 317,064 $ 338,593 $ 321,121 Actual maturities may differ from contractual maturities because certain borrowers have the right to call or prepay certain obligations with or without call or prepayment penalties. At December 31, 2023, there were $ 24.4 million of held-to-maturity investments on deposit with regulatory agencies of states in which the Company does business. A summary of the Company’s realized gains and losses on sales, calls or redemptions of investments for 2023, 2022 and 2021 is as follows: Fixed Maturity Equity Other Total (in thousands) Year ended December 31, 2023 Proceeds from sales $ 28,292 $ 12,688 $ 925 $ 41,905 Gross realized investment gains $ 181 $ 6,548 $ — $ 6,729 Gross realized investment losses ( 173 ) — — ( 173 ) Net realized investment gains 8 6,548 — 6,556 Other, including gains on calls and redemptions — — 23 23 Net realized gains on investments $ 8 $ 6,548 $ 23 $ 6,579 Year ended December 31, 2022 Proceeds from sales $ 42,505 $ 8,487 $ — $ 50,992 Gross realized investment gains $ 365 $ 3,350 $ — $ 3,715 Gross realized investment losses ( 51 ) — — ( 51 ) Net realized investment gains 314 3,350 — 3,664 Other, including losses on calls and redemptions ( 200 ) — ( 24 ) ( 224 ) Net realized gains (losses) on investments $ 114 $ 3,350 $ ( 24 ) $ 3,440 Year ended December 31, 2021 Proceeds from sales $ 28,191 $ — $ 12,388 $ 40,579 Gross realized investment gains $ 1,751 $ — $ 3 $ 1,754 Gross realized investment losses ( 21 ) — — ( 21 ) Net realized investment gains 1,730 — 3 1,733 Other, including losses on calls and redemptions ( 6 ) — ( 32 ) ( 38 ) Net realized gains (losses) on investments $ 1,724 $ — $ ( 29 ) $ 1,695 Major categories of the Company’s net investment income are summarized as follows: Year Ended December 31, 2023 2022 2021 (in thousands) Gross investment income: Fixed maturity securities $ 26,357 $ 24,399 $ 24,882 Equity securities 1,456 1,566 1,236 Short-term investments and cash and cash equivalents 4,456 2,260 304 Total gross investment income 32,269 28,225 26,422 Investment expenses ( 930 ) ( 1,002 ) ( 987 ) Net investment income $ 31,339 $ 27,223 $ 25,435 The following table summarizes the fair value and gross unrealized losses on fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale, aggregated by major investment category and length of time that the individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position: Less Than 12 Months 12 Months or Greater Total Fair Value of Gross Fair Value of Gross Fair Value of Gross (in thousands) December 31, 2023 Available-for-Sale States and political subdivisions $ 14,115 $ 111 $ 72,358 $ 6,608 $ 86,473 $ 6,719 Corporate bonds 26,178 96 93,538 3,390 119,716 3,486 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed — — 4,745 445 4,745 445 U.S. Treasury securities and — — 13,672 1,145 13,672 1,145 Total available-for-sale securities $ 40,293 $ 207 $ 184,313 $ 11,588 $ 224,606 $ 11,795 December 31, 2022 Available-for-Sale States and political subdivisions $ 87,522 $ 5,319 $ 24,980 $ 4,507 $ 112,502 $ 9,826 Corporate bonds 98,590 4,549 30,011 2,108 128,601 6,657 U.S. agency-based mortgage-backed 4,732 444 714 94 5,446 538 U.S. Treasury securities and 5,589 313 7,719 1,140 13,308 1,453 Total available-for-sale securities $ 196,433 $ 10,625 $ 63,424 $ 7,849 $ 259,857 $ 18,474 At December 31, 2023, the Company held 156 individual fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale that were in an unrealized loss position, of which 134 were in a continuous unrealized loss position for longer than 12 months. The following table illustrates the changes in the allowance for credit losses by major security type of the investments classified as held-to-maturity for the year ended December 31, 2023. States and Corporate U.S. Agency U.S. Asset-Backed Totals (in thousands) Balance at December 31, 2022 $ 40 $ 196 $ — $ — $ 3 $ 239 Provision for credit loss benefit ( 2 ) ( 54 ) — — ( 1 ) ( 57 ) Balance at December 31, 2023 $ 38 $ 142 $ — $ — $ 2 $ 182 The Company has established an allowance for credit losses on 471 held-to-maturity securities totaling $ 0.2 million as of December 31, 2023. The majority of those securities were issued by states and political subdivisions and corporate bonds at 451 and 17 , respectively. The Company has no allowance for credit losses on investments classified as available-for-sale as of December 31, 2023 and 2022. The credit rating used for held-to-maturity fixed income securities is the rating for each security as published by Moody’s, S&P, and Fitch to determine the probability of default. If there are two ratings, the lower rating is used. If there are three ratings, the median rating is used. If there is one rating, that rating is used. For corporate fixed income securities (given a rating), the probability of default comes from Moody’s annual study of corporate bond defaults published each February. The maximum maturity using the default rate is 20 years (any maturity greater than 20 years will use the 20-year rate). For municipal fixed income securities (given a rating), the probability of default comes from Moody’s annual study of municipal bond defaults published each July/August. The calculation of the credit loss allowance takes the amortized cost of the fixed income security and assumes default and recovery based on the average recovery rates from the Moody’s default studies. The amortized cost of the security plus any accrued interest, minus the amount recovered, is the estimated full amount the Company could lose in a default scenario. Then this amount is multiplied by the probability of default to determine the allowance for credit loss. The lower the security is rated, the higher likelihood of default, and therefore a higher allowance for credit loss. The longer to the maturity date of a security, the higher the default risk. The table below presents the amortized cost of held-to-maturity securities aggregated by credit quality indicator as of December 31, 2023. States and Corporate U.S. Agency U.S. Asset-Backed Totals Amortized cost (in thousands) AAA/AA/A ratings $ 413,966 $ 22,696 $ 3,297 $ 11,186 $ 23 $ 451,168 Baa/BBB ratings 2,950 29,625 — — 14 32,589 B ratings — — — — — — Total $ 416,916 $ 52,321 $ 3,297 $ 11,186 $ 37 $ 483,757 |