Investments | 5. Investments Fair values The amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses and fair value for fixed income securities are as follows: Amortized cost Gross unrealized Fair value ($ in thousands) Gains Losses December 31, 2019 U.S. government and agencies $ 43,280 $ 9,534 $ — $ 52,814 Municipal 433,038 119,242 — 552,280 Corporate 3,400,471 277,338 (2,564 ) 3,675,245 Foreign government 133,635 6,531 — 140,166 MBS 12,683 1,174 — 13,857 Total fixed income securities $ 4,023,107 $ 413,819 $ (2,564 ) $ 4,434,362 December 31, 2018 U.S. government and agencies $ 76,070 $ 9,394 $ — $ 85,464 Municipal 615,511 88,530 (118 ) 703,923 Corporate 3,514,421 118,369 (69,959 ) 3,562,831 Foreign government 128,926 7,896 — 136,822 ABS 19,906 — (18 ) 19,888 MBS 20,276 1,166 (26 ) 21,416 Total fixed income securities $ 4,375,110 $ 225,355 $ (70,121 ) $ 4,530,344 Scheduled maturities The scheduled maturities for fixed income securities are as follows: As of December 31, 2019 ($ in thousands) Amortized Fair value Due in one year or less $ 319,944 $ 322,640 Due after one year through five years 1,257,931 1,320,313 Due after five years through ten years 1,613,303 1,733,809 Due after ten years 819,246 1,043,743 4,010,424 4,420,505 MBS 12,683 13,857 Total $ 4,023,107 $ 4,434,362 Actual maturities may differ from those scheduled as a result of calls and make-whole payments by the issuers. MBS is shown separately because of the potential for prepayment of principal prior to contractual maturity dates. Net investment income Net investment income for the years ended December 31 is as follows: ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 2017 Fixed income securities $ 208,816 $ 214,039 $ 228,507 Mortgage loans 32,566 30,920 28,263 Equity securities 4,283 5,565 5,465 Limited partnership interests 15,348 43,365 53,917 Short-term investments 4,393 2,966 1,200 Policy loans 2,343 2,339 2,443 Investment income, before expense 267,749 299,194 319,795 Investment expense (11,743 ) (11,311 ) (9,100 ) Net investment income $ 256,006 $ 287,883 $ 310,695 Realized capital gains and losses Realized capital gains (losses) by asset type for the years ended December 31 are as follows: ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 2017 Fixed income securities $ 1,389 $ (1,306 ) $ 5,436 Mortgage loans — 466 1,128 Equity securities 40,780 (16,364 ) 799 Limited partnership interests 5,383 (3,895 ) 6,451 Derivatives 59,087 638 52,506 Short-term investments (12 ) (93 ) 12 Realized capital gains (losses) $ 106,627 $ (20,554 ) $ 66,332 Realized capital gains (losses) by transaction type for the years ended December 31 are as follows: ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 2017 Impairment write-downs $ (169 ) $ (285 ) $ (5,370 ) Sales 4,698 (1,548 ) 19,196 Valuation of equity investments (1) 43,011 (19,359 ) — Valuation and settlements of derivative instruments 59,087 638 52,506 Realized capital gains (losses) $ 106,627 $ (20,554 ) $ 66,332 (1) Includes valuation of equity securities and certain limited partnership interests where the underlying assets are predominately public equity securities. Sales of fixed income securities resulted in gross gains of $4.9 million, $4.4 million, and $19.8 million and gross losses of $3.3 million, $5.4 million and $8.2 million during 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively. The following table presents the net pre-tax For the years ended ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 Equity securities $ 29,558 $ (12,897 ) Limited partnership interests carried at fair value 9,165 16,968 Total $ 38,723 $ 4,071 OTTI losses by asset type for the years ended December 31 are as follows: 2019 2018 2017 ($ in thousands) Gross Included Net Gross Included Net Gross Included Net Fixed income securities: Corporate $ — $ — $ — $ — $ — $ — $ (1,481 ) $ — $ (1,481 ) MBS (1,202 ) 1,033 (169 ) (68 ) (217 ) (285 ) (2,338 ) 893 (1,445 ) Total fixed income securities (1,202 ) 1,033 (169 ) (68 ) (217 ) (285 ) (3,819 ) 893 (2,926 ) Equity securities — — — — — — (2,422 ) — (2,422 ) Limited partnership interests — — — — — — (22 ) — (22 ) OTTI losses $ (1,202 ) $ 1,033 $ (169 ) $ (68 ) $ (217 ) $ (285 ) $ (6,263 ) $ 893 $ (5,370 ) The total amount of OTTI losses included in AOCI at the time of impairment for fixed income securities, which were not included in earnings, are presented in the following table. ($ in thousands) December 31, December 31, MBS (1) $ (1,188 ) $ (358 ) (1) The amounts exclude $2.0 million and $1.9 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively, of net unrealized gains related to changes in valuation of the fixed income securities subsequent to the impairment measurement date. Rollforwards of the cumulative credit losses recognized in earnings for fixed income securities held as of December 31 are as follows: ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 2017 Beginning balance $ (2,684 ) $ (3,192 ) $ (4,594 ) Additional credit loss for securities previously other-than-temporarily impaired (169 ) (285 ) (128 ) Additional credit loss for securities not previously other-than-temporarily impaired — — (2,798 ) Reduction in credit loss for securities disposed or collected 1,740 793 4,328 Ending balance $ (1,113 ) $ (2,684 ) $ (3,192 ) The Company uses its best estimate of future cash flows expected to be collected from the fixed income security, discounted at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, to calculate a recovery value and determine whether a credit loss exists. The determination of cash flow estimates is inherently subjective, and methodologies may vary depending on facts and circumstances specific to the security. All reasonably available information relevant to the collectability of the security, including past events, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable assumptions and forecasts, are considered when developing the estimate of cash flows expected to be collected. That information generally includes, but is not limited to, the remaining payment terms of the security, prepayment speeds, foreign exchange rates, the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer, expected defaults, expected recoveries, the value of underlying collateral, vintage, geographic concentration of underlying collateral, available reserves or escrows, current subordination levels, third party guarantees and other credit enhancements. Other information, such as industry analyst reports and forecasts, sector credit ratings, financial condition of the bond insurer for insured fixed income securities, and other market data relevant to the realizability of contractual cash flows, may also be considered. The estimated fair value of collateral will be used to estimate recovery value if the Company determines that the security is dependent on the liquidation of collateral for ultimate settlement. If the estimated recovery value is less than the amortized cost of the security, a credit loss exists and an OTTI for the difference between the estimated recovery value and amortized cost is recorded in earnings. The portion of the unrealized loss related to factors other than credit remains classified in AOCI. If the Company determines that the fixed income security does not have sufficient cash flow or other information to estimate a recovery value for the security, the Company may conclude that the entire decline in fair value is deemed to be credit related and the loss is recorded in earnings. Unrealized net capital gains and losses Unrealized net capital gains and losses included in AOCI are as follows: ($ in thousands) Fair value Gross unrealized Unrealized net December 31, 2019 Gains Losses Fixed income securities $ 4,434,362 $ 413,819 $ (2,564 ) $ 411,255 Short-term investments 224,098 4 (17 ) (13 ) EMA limited partnerships (1) (205 ) Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax 411,037 Amounts recognized for: Insurance reserves (2) (231,357 ) DAC and DSI (3) (21,820 ) Amounts recognized (253,177 ) Deferred income taxes (33,151 ) Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax $ 124,709 December 31, 2018 Fixed income securities $ 4,530,344 $ 225,355 $ (70,121 ) $ 155,234 Short-term investments 88,548 — (4 ) (4 ) EMA limited partnerships (50 ) Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax 155,180 Amounts recognized for: Insurance reserves (80,628 ) DAC and DSI (2,277 ) Amounts recognized (82,905 ) Deferred income taxes (15,178 ) Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax $ 57,097 (1) Unrealized net capital gains and losses for limited partnership interests represent the Company’s share of EMA limited partnerships’ OCI. Fair value and gross unrealized gains and losses are not applicable. (2) The insurance reserves adjustment represents the amount by which the reserve balance would increase if the net unrealized gains in the applicable product portfolios were realized and reinvested at lower interest rates, resulting in a premium deficiency. This adjustment primarily relates to structured settlement annuities with life contingencies (a type of immediate annuities with life contingencies). (3) The DAC and DSI adjustment balance represents the amount by which the amortization of DAC and DSI would increase or decrease if the unrealized gains or losses in the respective product portfolios were realized. Change in unrealized net capital gains and losses The change in unrealized net capital gains and losses for the years ended December 31 is as follows: ($ in thousands) 2019 2018 2017 Fixed income securities $ 256,021 $ (212,483 ) $ 29,700 Equity securities (1) — — 32,927 Short-term investments (9 ) 9 (12 ) EMA limited partnerships (155 ) (40 ) 51 Total 255,857 (212,514 ) 62,666 Amounts recognized for: Insurance reserves (150,729 ) 141,714 (165,992 ) DAC and DSI (19,543 ) 6,780 1,465 Amounts recognized (170,272 ) 148,494 (164,527 ) Deferred income taxes (17,973 ) 13,445 60,664 Increase (decrease) in unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax $ 67,612 $ (50,575 ) $ (41,197 ) (1) Upon adoption of the recognition and measurement accounting standard on January 1, 2018, $42.4 million of pre-tax Portfolio monitoring The Company has a comprehensive portfolio monitoring process to identify and evaluate each fixed income security whose carrying value may be other-than-temporarily impaired. For each fixed income security in an unrealized loss position, the Company assesses whether management with the appropriate authorityhas made the decision to sell or whether it is more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the security before recovery of the amortized cost basis for reasons such as liquidity, contractual or regulatory purposes. If a security meets either of these criteria, the security’s decline in fair value is considered other than temporary and is recorded in earnings. If the Company has not made the decision to sell the fixed income security and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the fixed income security before recovery of its amortized cost basis, the Company evaluates whether it expects to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the security. The Company calculates the estimated recovery value by discounting the best estimate of future cash flows at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, and compares this to the amortized cost of the security. If the Company does not expect to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the fixed income security, the credit loss component of the impairment is recorded in earnings, with the remaining amount of the unrealized loss related to other factors recognized in OCI. The Company’s portfolio monitoring process includes a quarterly review of all securities to identify instances where the fair value of a security compared to its amortized cost is below established thresholds. The process also includes the monitoring of other impairment indicators such as ratings, ratings downgrades and payment defaults. The securities identified, in addition to other securities for which the Company may have a concern, are evaluated for potential OTTI using all reasonably available information relevant to the collectability or recovery of the security. Inherent in the Company’s evaluation of OTTI for these securities are assumptions and estimates about the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer. Some of the factors that may be considered in evaluating whether a decline in fair value is other than temporary are: 1) the financial condition, near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer, including relevant industry specific market conditions and trends, geographic location and implications of rating agency actions and offering prices; 2) the specific reasons that a security is in an unrealized loss position, including overall market conditions which could affect liquidity; and 3) the length of time and extent to which the fair value has been less than amortized cost. The following table summarizes the gross unrealized losses and fair value of securities by the length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position. ($ in thousands) Less than 12 months 12 months or more Total Number Fair Unrealized Number Fair Unrealized December 31, 2019 Fixed income securities Corporate 44 $ 104,484 $ (815 ) 17 $ 31,900 $ (1,749 ) $ (2,564 ) MBS 2 38 — 2 1 — — Total fixed income securities 46 $ 104,522 $ (815 ) 19 $ 31,901 $ (1,749 ) $ (2,564 ) Investment grade fixed income securities 22 $ 82,142 $ (347 ) 3 $ 9,845 $ (130 ) $ (477 ) Below investment grade fixed income securities 24 22,380 (468 ) 16 22,056 (1,619 ) (2,087 ) Total fixed income securities 46 $ 104,522 $ (815 ) 19 $ 31,901 $ (1,749 ) $ (2,564 ) December 31, 2018 Fixed income securities Municipal 1 $ 9,371 $ (11 ) 1 $ 4,893 $ (107 ) $ (118 ) Corporate 451 1,308,566 (40,510 ) 123 480,729 (29,449 ) (69,959 ) ABS 1 10,010 (9 ) 1 9,878 (9 ) (18 ) MBS 90 1,086 (5 ) 20 939 (21 ) (26 ) Total fixed income securities 543 $ 1,329,033 $ (40,535 ) 145 $ 496,439 $ (29,586 ) $ (70,121 ) Investment grade fixed income securities 309 $ 1,111,745 $ (27,375 ) 122 $ 470,388 $ (26,471 ) $ (53,846 ) Below investment grade fixed income securities 234 217,288 (13,160 ) 23 26,051 (3,115 ) (16,275 ) Total fixed income securities 543 $ 1,329,033 $ (40,535 ) 145 $ 496,439 $ (29,586 ) $ (70,121 ) The following table summarizes gross unrealized losses by unrealized loss position and credit quality as of December 31, 2019. ($ in thousands) Investment Below investment Total Fixed income securities with unrealized loss position less than 20% of amortized cost (1) (2) $ (477 ) $ (1,722 ) $ (2,199 ) Fixed income securities with unrealized loss position greater than or equal to 20% of amortized cost (3) (4) — (365 ) (365 ) Total unrealized losses $ (477 ) $ (2,087 ) $ (2,564 ) (1) Below investment grade fixed income securities include $468 thousand that have been in an unrealized loss position for less than twelve months. (2) Related to securities with an unrealized loss position less than 20% of amortized cost, the degree of which suggests that these securities do not pose a high risk of being other-than-temporarily impaired. (3) No below investment grade fixed income securities have been in an unrealized loss position for a period of twelve or more consecutive months. (4) Evaluated based on factors such as discounted cash flows and the financial condition and near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer and were determined to have adequate resources to fulfill contractual obligations. Investment grade is defined as a security having a rating of Aaa, Aa, A or Baa from Moody’s, a rating of AAA, AA, A or BBB from S&P Global Ratings (“S&P”), a comparable rating from another nationally recognized rating agency, or a comparable internal rating if an externally provided rating is not available. Market prices for certain securities may have credit spreads which imply higher or lower credit quality than the current third-party rating. Unrealized losses on investment grade securities are principally related to an increase in market yields which may include increased risk-free interest rates and/or wider credit spreads since the time of initial purchase. The unrealized losses are expected to reverse as the securities approach maturity. ABS and MBS in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on actual and projected collateral losses relative to the securities’ positions in the respective securitization trusts, security specific expectations of cash flows, and credit ratings. This evaluation also takes into consideration credit enhancement, measured in terms of (i) subordination from other classes of securities in the trust that are contractually obligated to absorb losses before the class of security the Company owns, and (ii) the expected impact of other structural features embedded in the securitization trust beneficial to the class of securities the Company owns, such as overcollateralization and excess spread. Municipal bonds in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on the underlying credit quality of the primary obligor, obligation type and quality of the underlying assets. As of December 31, 2019, the Company has not made the decision to sell and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell fixed income securities with unrealized losses before recovery of the amortized cost basis. Limited partnerships Investments in limited partnership interests include interests in private equity funds, real estate funds and other funds. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, the carrying value of EMA limited partnerships totaled $277.2 million and $278.1 million, respectively, and limited partnerships carried at fair value totaled $109.1 million and $104.8 million, respectively. Principal factors influencing carrying value appreciation or decline include operating performance, comparable public company earnings multiples, capitalization rates and the economic environment. For equity method limited partnerships, the Company recognizes an impairment loss when evidence demonstrates that the loss is other than temporary. Evidence of a loss in value that is other than temporary may include the absence of an ability to recover the carrying amount of the investment or the inability of the investee to sustain a level of earnings that would justify the carrying amount of the investment. Changes in fair value limited partnerships are recorded through net investment income and therefore are not tested for impairment. Mortgage loans The Company’s mortgage loans are commercial mortgage loans collateralized by a variety of commercial real estate property types located across the United States and totaled, net of valuation allowance, $733.3 million and $696.1 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. Substantially all of the commercial mortgage loans are non-recourse The following table shows the principal geographic distribution of commercial real estate represented in the Company’s mortgage loan portfolio. No other state represented more than 5% of the portfolio as of December 31. (% of mortgage loan portfolio carrying value) 2019 2018 Texas 19.9 % 16.1 % California 16.7 18.4 North Carolina 8.2 8.8 Utah 5.9 2.1 Nevada 5.8 6.3 New Jersey 5.6 6.6 Illinois 5.5 6.1 The types of properties collateralizing the mortgage loans as of December 31 are as follows: (% of mortgage loan portfolio carrying value) 2019 2018 Apartment complex 32.6 % 31.3 % Office buildings 27.4 27.2 Warehouse 16.5 15.7 Retail 15.6 17.3 Other 7.9 8.5 Total 100.0 % 100.0 % The contractual maturities of the mortgage loan portfolio as of December 31, 2019 are as follows: ($ in thousands) Number Carrying Percent 2020 2 $ 7,235 1.0 % 2021 9 57,821 7.9 2022 10 61,004 8.3 2023 14 111,481 15.2 Thereafter 62 495,717 67.6 Total 97 $ 733,258 100.0 % Mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment on a specific loan basis through a quarterly credit monitoring process and review of key credit quality indicators. Mortgage loans are considered impaired when it is probable that the Company will not collect the contractual principal and interest. Valuation allowances are established for impaired loans to reduce the carrying value to the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or the present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows discounted at the loan’s original effective interest rate. Impaired mortgage loans may not have a valuation allowance when the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell is higher than the carrying value. Valuation allowances are adjusted for subsequent changes in the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows. Mortgage loans are charged off against their corresponding valuation allowances when there is no reasonable expectation of recovery. The impairment evaluation is non-statistical Accrual of income is suspended for mortgage loans that are in default or when full and timely collection of principal and interest payments is not probable. Cash receipts on mortgage loans on nonaccrual status are generally recorded as a reduction of carrying value. Debt service coverage ratio is considered a key credit quality indicator when mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment. Debt service coverage ratio represents the amount of estimated cash flows from the property available to the borrower to meet principal and interest payment obligations. Debt service coverage ratio estimates are updated annually or more frequently if conditions are warranted based on the Company’s credit monitoring process. The following table reflects the carrying value of non-impaired 2019 2018 ($ in thousands) Debt service coverage ratio distribution Fixed rate Variable Total Fixed rate Variable Total Below 1.0 $ — $ — $ — $ — $ — $ — 1.0 - 1.25 48,780 — 48,780 25,447 — 25,447 1.26 - 1.50 221,384 — 221,384 189,063 — 189,063 Above 1.50 434,675 28,419 463,094 453,153 28,399 481,552 Total non-impaired $ 704,839 $ 28,419 $ 733,258 $ 667,663 $ 28,399 $ 696,062 Mortgage loans with a debt service coverage ratio below 1.0 that are not considered impaired primarily relate to instances where the borrower has the financial capacity to fund the revenue shortfalls from the properties for the foreseeable term, the decrease in cash flows from the properties is considered temporary, or there are other risk mitigating circumstances such as additional collateral, escrow balances or borrower guarantees. There were no impaired mortgage loans and no valuation allowances as of December 31, 2019 or 2018. Payments on all mortgage loans were current as of December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017. Municipal bonds The Company maintains a diversified portfolio of municipal bonds which totaled $552.3 million and $703.9 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. The municipal bond portfolio includes general obligations of state and local issuers and revenue bonds (including pre-refunded (% of municipal bond portfolio carrying value) 2019 2018 California 33.3 % 28.1 % Texas 10.8 12.2 Oregon 10.6 7.6 Illinois 8.0 5.9 Short-term investments Short-term investments, including money market funds, commercial paper, U.S. Treasury bills and other short-term investments, are carried at fair value. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, the fair value of short-term investments totaled $224.1 million and $88.5 million, respectively. Policy loans Policy loans are carried at unpaid principal balances. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, the carrying value of policy loans totaled $38.6 million and $39.4 million, respectively. Other investments Other investments consist of derivatives. Derivatives are carried at fair value. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, the fair value of derivatives totaled $5.2 million and $653 thousand, respectively. Concentration of credit risk As of December 31, 2019, the Company is not exposed to any credit concentration risk of a single issuer and its affiliates greater than 10% of the Company’s shareholder’s equity, other than the U.S. government and its agencies. Securities loaned The Company’s business activities include securities lending programs with third parties, mostly large banks. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, fixed income and equity securities with a carrying value of $152.3 million and $66.6 million, respectively, were on loan under these agreements. Interest income on collateral, net of fees, was $342 thousand, $286 thousand and $235 thousand in 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively. Other investment information Included in fixed income securities are below investment grade assets totaling $406.0 million and $279.2 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. As of December 31, 2019, fixed income securities with a carrying value of $2.2 million were on deposit with regulatory authorities as required by law. As of December 31, 2019, there were no fixed income securities or other investments that were non-income |